A new visual dataset highlights how average monthly pensions in several European countries fall below €1,000 ($1,050), underscoring structural disparities that policymakers have long struggled to address.

The figures show Portugal at €961 ($1,010) per month, followed by Malta (€916 / $960) and Czechia (€843 / $885). Further down the scale, countries in Eastern and Southeastern Europe report markedly lower pensions, including Romania (€483 / $507), Serbia (€353 / $371), and Turkey (€281 / $295).

These figures align with broader Eurostat findings , which estimate the average pension across the European Union at roughly €1,345 per month (about $1,410) in 2022.

Annual pension income ranges from just €3,611 in Bulgaria to over €31,000 in Luxembourg, reflecting differences in wages, contributions, and welfare systems across member states.

Countries in the Balkans and Eastern Europe dominate the lower end of the spectrum . Bosnia and Herzegovina (€305 / $320) and Montenegro (€382 / $401) sit among the lowest, consistent with Eurostat data showing several of these economies have annual pensions below €8,000.

Turkey, a candidate country, remains at the bottom of the ranking, with pensions significantly affected by currency depreciation in recent years.

The OECD notes that public pensions account for more than 70% of older people’s income in many European countries, rising above 80% in some cases, making these disparities especially consequential for living standards.

Here’s the thing: pension outcomes in Europe are less about generosity and more about underlying economics.

Countries with higher wages, stronger tax bases, and mature social security systems, particularly in Northern and Western Europe, can sustain higher payouts. Meanwhile, lower-income economies tend to rely on more limited contribution systems.

The OECD estimates that, on average, pensions replace about 52% of pre-retirement income across member countries, though this varies widely depending on earnings level and national policy design.

Differences in retirement age, contribution rates, and the balance between public and private pension schemes further widen the gap.

Demographics are adding urgency to the issue. The OECD projects that the ratio of retirees to working-age people will rise sharply in the coming decades, putting additional strain on pension systems.

Across OECD countries, the population aged 65 and over is expected to surge , while the working-age population declines, raising concerns about sustainability and adequacy.

At the same time, replacement rates are projected to fall over time, meaning future retirees could receive a smaller share of their previous earnings.

When adjusted for purchasing power, disparities appear less extreme. Eurostat data show the gap between the highest and lowest pensions shrinks significantly when accounting for cost-of-living differences, though inequalities remain substantial.

One major pillar targets musculoskeletal health and mobility, a growing concern in ageing societies. The programme is supporting work on rapid screening tools for fractures and falls, as well as advanced research using bone organoids and lab-grown tissue models, to help predict how patients respond to drugs, allowing doctors to personalise fracture prevention for those most at risk.

Launching the programme on March 28, NRF chief executive John Lim said musculoskeletal problems are often underestimated despite being a major driver of disability worldwide. The goal, he said, is to translate promising research into real-world healthcare and move care earlier, from treatment to prevention and recovery support in the community.

Beyond physical health, FHT2 also includes a mental wellbeing track that will develop a platform combining large language models, behavioural science and real-world data to power apps that deliver tailored interventions for issues such as anxiety, depression and stress, particularly among young people .

A third track focuses on rehabilitation and recovery, including technology-assisted therapy for patients rebuilding upper-limb movement after stroke, part of a broader push to improve quality of life as people live longer.

FHT2 follows the first Future Health Technologies programme, which ran from 2020 to March this year and produced tools such as a cognitive screening test for early dementia signals and a chatbot-based health coaching app. The second phase is intended to speed up adoption in clinics and hospitals, with programme leaders saying they want patients to benefit directly from these technologies by 2030.

The ranking, which evaluates countries across 11 key indicators including cost of living, healthcare quality, climate, infrastructure, safety, and retiree-friendly policies, places New Zealand at the top with a score of 71.78 out of 100, underscoring its growing appeal among retirees seeking stability and quality of life.

Close behind are Luxembourg (68.04) and Switzerland (67.16), reinforcing Europe’s long-standing dominance in retirement planning, driven by strong healthcare systems, high living standards, and robust social protections.

European countries feature prominently across the rankings. Spain (65.27), Portugal (64.14), Malta (63.2), and France (61.3) all secure positions within the top 10, reflecting the region’s enduring attractiveness driven by climate, lifestyle, and accessible healthcare.

According to CEOWORLD magazine, countries in Southern Europe in particular benefit from a combination of relatively lower living costs and favourable residency programmes tailored to retirees, including tax incentives and long-stay visas.

However, not all European destinations perform equally. Greece, despite its popularity among tourists, ranks lower at 57.3, pointing to economic constraints and infrastructure gaps that continue to weigh on its retirement appeal.

Canada (66.39) and Australia (66.06) also rank highly, supported by strong public healthcare systems, political stability, and high safety standards. These countries continue to attract retirees prioritising long-term security and access to quality services.

New Zealand’s top ranking reflects a similar profile but with added advantages in environmental quality and lower population density, factors increasingly valued by retirees in the post-pandemic era.

Asian destinations are steadily climbing the rankings, offering a compelling mix of affordability and improving infrastructure. Thailand (60.97), Vietnam (60.25), and Indonesia (59.85) all feature in the top half of the list.

CEOWORLD notes that lower living costs and expanding healthcare services are making Southeast Asia particularly attractive for retirees from higher-cost Western economies. However, differences in healthcare quality and regulatory frameworks remain key considerations.

Countries such as Ecuador (59.65), the United Arab Emirates (58.8), and Dominica (58.59) highlight a growing trend toward non-traditional retirement hubs. These destinations often combine tax advantages, residency incentives, and lifestyle benefits aimed at attracting foreign retirees.

Meanwhile, Italy (58.37), Belize (58.1), and Mexico (57.96) continue to appeal for their culture and climate but face challenges related to bureaucracy, healthcare access, or regional safety concerns.

Bangladesh, by contrast, covers just 147,570 square kilometres, making it roughly 115 times smaller.

According to data from Wordometer , Bangladesh’s population stands at around 176 million, while Russia’s population is approximately 143 million.

The country sits on the fertile Ganges–Brahmaputra Delta, one of the most agriculturally productive regions on the planet. For centuries, this allowed dense human settlement supported by farming, fishing, and river-based trade .

While fertility rates have declined sharply since the 1980s, a trend documented by the World Bank , population momentum keeps total numbers high due to a large base of young people.

Today, Bangladesh has made notable progress in healthcare, child survival, and life expectancy, all of which contribute to population size even as birth rates fall. The UN notes that Bangladesh is now approaching replacement-level fertility, a major shift from past decades.

Russia’s population challenge

Despite its vast landmass and natural resources, the country faces long-term population decline. According to the United Nations and Rosstat , Russia has struggled with low fertility rates, high mortality among working-age men, and outward migration. These trends have been compounded by economic pressures and, in recent years, geopolitical instability.

Large parts of Russia are also sparsely populated due to harsh climate, limited infrastructure, and historical settlement patterns. Much of the population is concentrated in the west, leaving enormous regions with very low population density.

According to recent data, Nigeria records around 7.5 million live births annually, while Europe, together with Russia, see roughly 6.3 million births per year.

Nigeria’s high fertility rate, which averages around 4.6 births per woman, plays a big role in these figures. That rate is well above global averages and far higher than most of Europe, where fertility rates commonly fall below replacement level (about 1.4 to 1.6 children per woman).

By contrast, much of Europe has a deeply aged population and decades of low birth rates. Countries such as Italy, Spain and Germany have fertility well under replacement level, contributing to slower natural population growth and, in some cases, declining native population totals.

Russia in particular illustrates this trend as its fertility rate is among the lowest in the world at roughly 1.4 births per woman, and official statistics show persistent declines in the number of births as the population ages.

Low fertility rates in Europe are already prompting incentives for families, reforms in parental support, and debates about immigration policy as governments seek ways to stabilise future population size and workforce strength.

Nigeria’s youth-heavy population and higher birth rates, on the other hand, have helped it become a demographic powerhouse , even as many European countries confront ageing populations, shrinking workforces and fiscal pressures linked to elder care.

Nigeria’s demographic trends also carry implications. Rapid population growth can fuel economic expansion if accompanied by investment in education, health and employment.

The World Economic Forum suggests that "A population projected to reach 400 million by 2050 needs jobs aligned with a fast-digitising economy. But youth unemployment remains among the highest globally, with 23% of young Nigerians actively looking for work, while another 32% are out of employment altogether. Employers also report persistent shortages in technical and digital skills, underscoring the need for coordinated investment."

According to the graphic sourced from UN 2024 data, Africa’s median age sits at about 19.3 years, making it by far the youngest continent. Europe leads in age, with a median of 42.7 years.

Meanwhile, North America is 38.7, Asia is 32.5, South America is 31.7, and Australia/Oceania is 33.3. The contrast highlights how differently regions face the twin forces of youthful populations and ageing societies.

This map is more than visual: it reflects the demographic pressures reshaping global economics, politics , and social systems. Let’s unpack what these differences mean — and why they matter today.

Why Africa remains so young

Africa’s median age of about 19 means that most of its population remains in childhood or youth. This youthful demographic is a legacy of high birth rates and improving child survival, even as life expectancy has been rising globally.

It also places Africa in a moment of potential advantage, often called a “demographic dividend”, where a large cohort of working-age people could drive growth, innovation, and productivity, if the right investments are made in education, health, and jobs.

But this opportunity is not automatic. Without matching growth in infrastructure , education, and employment, Africa instead faces youth unemployment, social instability, and pressure on public services.

The median-age map makes clear just how concentrated the world’s youngest populations are and how urgent it is for African nations to capitalise on youth potential.

Europe’s ageing profile

Europe’s median age of 42.7 signals its deep transition: fertility well below replacement levels, rising life expectancy, and a shrinking younger cohort. This demographic structure intensifies pressure on pensions, healthcare systems, eldercare, and social safety nets. As Europe ages, fewer workers must support more retirees.

Yet even within Europe, disparities are growing. Some countries, especially in Eastern Europe, are facing sharper population decline and brain drain, while others wrestle with integrating migrants to balance age structures.

A recent analysis from the Bruegel think tank suggests that Europe’s ageing burden may be more manageable than often assumed, projecting only modest increases in age-related public spending through 2070. Still, the structural challenge remains significant.

Global ageing

The world is getting older, everywhere. UN projections show that by mid-century, people aged 60 and over will more than double, making up a much larger slice of the global population.

In developed economies, this trend is already clear: working-age ratios (people aged 15–64) have shrunk over time and will keep falling. The Path to 2075 report projects that median ages in “developed markets” will climb toward 47 years by 2075, while in “emerging markets” they’ll approach 40.

Health systems, retirement systems, and labour markets all strain under this shift. The World Health Organisation (WHO) warns that as more people live into their 80s and beyond, chronic diseases, care dependency, and related costs will grow.

When Miss Universe lifted its long-standing age cap of 28 for this year’s competition, Sakai, 66, seized the chance to compete alongside women decades younger. Out of hundreds of hopefuls, she was selected as one of 42 finalists nationwide.

For Sakai, the journey has become more than a personal challenge; it is a cultural statement that she aims to show that older women, often sidelined in Japanese society , can still shine.

“I was the star. It was my moment,” Sakai said , recalling her brief but unforgettable walk on stage. “You have raised four kids and have always put others first. It’s time to do something for yourself,” her husband told her when she first considered applying.

Though she once feared criticism, Sakai was surprised by the support she received from her children and the public. “People actually don’t care as much about you as you think,” she reflected.

As Japan’s elderly population hits record highs, with nearly 100,000 people over the age of 100 this year, Sakai hopes to serve as a reminder that Respect-for-the-Aged Day, often celebrated in the country, is not just about celebrating longevity, but about recognising the dignity and vitality of older generations.

Taiwan’s labour market now faces both immediate and long-term pressures as older generations retire and fewer young people enter the workforce.

The first wave of retirees comes from the cohort born between 1958 and 1966, when 3.78 million births were recorded. This group began entering retirement in 2023, triggering a contraction in the labour force.

A second wave, expected in about 16 years, will include those born between 1976 and 1982, when 2.89 million births occurred, the Ministry said. Together, these two groups will reduce the working-age population by 6.67 million.

The demographic strain is compounded by persistently low birth rates, with fewer than 1.6 million people entering the workforce compared with more than 2 million retiring. “Working-age youths” were defined as individuals aged 15 and older, according to the ministry.

Older Taiwanese have low participation in the labour market, with only 10% of those aged 65 and above remaining employed, compared with 25 to 35% in South Korea, Japan, and Singapore. Younger workers are also slower to enter the workforce, as labour force participation among those aged 15 to 29 is only 38%, well below the 60% seen in Europe and the US.

A Ministry of Labour study noted that more than 196,000 university and college graduates have yet to register for labour insurance, excluding those serving in the military, working abroad, or farming. Suggesting that many young Taiwanese are struggling to find employment or remain inactive at home.

According to United Nations data, the number of people aged 65 or older worldwide is expected to more than double from 761 million in 2021 to 1.6 billion by 2050. The population aged 80 and above is growing at an even faster rate. In 2021, one in ten people globally was aged 65 or older; by 2050, that figure is projected to rise to one in six.

Just days ago, Japan, the country with the oldest population, reported a record number of centenarians, with 99,763 people aged 100 or older as of September 1. This marked the 55th consecutive annual increase. 

Northern Africa , Western Asia, and sub-Saharan Africa are projected to record the fastest growth in older populations over the next three decades, the UN said.

Taiwan’s total population has been shrinking for 19 consecutive months. At the end of July, government data showed the population stood at 23,337,936, down 8,805 from June and 71,387 from a year earlier.

Japan’s population shrank by more than 900,000 people in 2024, the steepest decline on record, fueling concerns over the sustainability of the workforce and the mounting costs of medical care and pensions, the Telegraph reports.

Outgoing Prime Minister Shigeru Ishiba has described the situation as a “quiet emergency”, promising to expand free daycare, encourage flexible working hours, and promote policies to support families. Authorities are also turning to care robots and incentives for foreign workers to ease the pressure on Japan’s strained social systems.

South Korea, on the other hand, has more than 10 million people aged over 65, while Italy is also grappling with a shrinking birth rate and a swelling pensioner population.

Japan’s oldest living person is Shigeko Kagawa, a 114-year-old former doctor in the Nara region. She attributed her vitality to walking long distances during house calls in her younger years, which she said gave her “strong legs, the source of my current vitality.”

Globally, however, the record for the world’s oldest person is currently held by Britain’s Ethel Caterham , who turned 116 in August.

Women are thought to have genetic and hormonal protections that contribute to lower mortality from certain diseases.

Men, on the other hand, are more likely to engage in risky behaviours and suffer from health issues such as cardiovascular disease at a younger age.

Parents will receive about US$500 every year for each child under three years old, who was born on or after January 2025.

This is the first time the central government has rolled out such a scheme across the entire country, after years of smaller local efforts that did little to stop the drop in population.

Children born before 2025 but still under the age of three will also get support, though the amount will depend on how many months remain before their third birthday.

The payments are part of Beijing’s wider campaign to encourage more people to have children after decades of strict birth limits and a rapidly ageing population.

China’s population has been decreasing for three years in a row.

Even though there was a slight rise in births in 2024, many couples are still unsure about starting families, with concerns over high living costs, job security, and the pressures of raising children.

These worries have kept birth numbers low, despite earlier policies such as tax breaks, longer parental leave, and cash rewards in some cities.

A sharp drop in marriage registrations last year has also contributed to the country’s problems.

In 1927, Turkey's population stood at approximately 13.6 million . Over the subsequent decades, the country witnessed significant growth, reaching 83.6 million by 2020. This expansion was particularly rapid in the post-World War II era, with annual growth rates peaking at nearly 3% in the early 1960s.

Factors contributing to this surge included high birth rates and internal migration from rural to urban areas. However, by 2020, the growth rate had decelerated to 0.6% annually, influenced by declining fertility rates and an ageing population.

Greece's population plateau and decline

Greece's demographic journey was more complex. Following the 1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey, Greece's population in 1928 was recorded at 6.2 million. The nation experienced steady growth throughout the mid-20th century, peaking at around 11.1 million in 2010 .

However, the subsequent decade saw a decline, with the population decreasing to approximately 10.7 million by 2020. This downturn has been attributed to low birth rates, economic challenges, and emigration.

The contrasting population trends of Greece and Turkey have significant implications for their respective futures. Turkey's youthful and growing population presents opportunities for economic expansion but also poses challenges related to employment and urban infrastructure.

Greece, on the other hand, faces the challenges of an ageing population and a shrinking workforce , necessitating policy responses to address potential economic and social impacts.

A glimpse across generations: Lifespans in years

Bowhead Whale: 200 years

Humans (2020s): 72 years

Elephant: 56 years

Humans (1950): 47 years

Brandt’s Bat: 41 years

Western Gorilla: 35 years

Brown Bear: 25 years

Tiger: 14 years

Hedgehog: 3 years

These numbers provide more than biological trivia as they reflect evolutionary strategies, environmental pressures, and human influence on lifespans.

Why does the bowhead whale live so long?

According to genetic studies cited in The Lancet, the bowhead whale holds secrets to ageing locked in its slow metabolism, resistance to cancer, and cellular repair capabilities. Residing in frigid waters helps too: cold temperatures can reduce metabolic stress, potentially slowing the ageing process.

The human story: A dramatic leap in lifespan

In 1950, global human life expectancy stood at just 47 years, according to the UN World Population Prospects 2022. By 2020, that number had risen to 72 years, fuelled by advancements in medical science and vaccines, sanitation and clean water, nutrition and public health , and education and socio-economic development.

Our World in Data reports that this progress has not been evenly distributed—life expectancy still varies drastically between countries, with some regions in sub-Saharan Africa lagging due to poverty and limited healthcare access.

Between 2000 and the mid-2010s, Europe’s overall population continued to grow, but at a slowing pace. According to Eurostat , the population of the EU-27 increased from approximately 474 million in 2000 to around 448 million by 2023 (note: the drop reflects the UK's exit from the EU rather than an actual decline). However, this growth has not been evenly distributed.

Countries like Germany, France, the UK and Sweden in Western and Northern Europe generally saw moderate growth, largely supported by immigration.

In the southern part, Italy, Spain and Greece experienced slower growth or stagnation, with some areas beginning to shrink. Meanwhile, Eastern Europe and the Baltics saw significant population decline, driven by low birth rates, high emigration rates, and ageing populations.

One of the most notable demographic changes in Europe since 2000 is the ageing of the population. The median age in the EU rose from about 38 years in 2001 to over 44 years by 2023. The proportion of people aged 65 and over has steadily increased, while the share of working-age individuals (15–64 years) has declined.

Some countries, like Germany, Italy, and Greece, are facing particularly acute ageing trends, while others like Ireland and France have slightly younger populations due to higher fertility rates and more youthful immigrant populations.

On the other hand, fertility rates across Europe have remained below the replacement level of 2.1 children per woman. Most EU countries have fertility rates between 1.3 and 1.7, with some of the lowest levels seen in Italy, Spain, and Portugal since 2000.

In terms of migration, the post-2004 EU enlargement saw millions of workers move from Eastern to Western Europe. The refugee crisis in 2015 also brought a significant influx of asylum seekers from Syria, Afghanistan, and other conflict zones. To top it up, Labour migration and intra-EU mobility have continued to influence regional demographics, often revitalising urban centres while depopulating rural and peripheral regions.

And then there is Brexit! The United Kingdom’s exit from the EU in 2020 also reshaped Europe’s demographic landscape. The UK had been one of the EU's most populous and fastest-growing countries, largely due to high levels of immigration and a relatively youthful population. Its departure altered both statistical trends and actual migration patterns across the continent.

Currently, 29.3% of Japan's total population is aged 65 and above, marking an increase of 0.2 percentage points and setting a new record. This demographic includes 15.72 million men, representing 26.1% of the male population, and 20.53 million women, making up 32.3% of the female population.

Projections by the National Institute of Population and Social Security Research estimate that by 2040, this figure will rise to 34.8%, as the second baby boomer generation, born between 1971 and 1974, ages into this group.

Japan, already recognised as having the world's oldest population , has also faced declining birth rates in recent years. In response, the government invested $19 million in 2021 to support local authorities in running or launching projects that use artificial intelligence (AI) to help match individuals and encourage marriages, to boost the birth rate.

In June 2024, it was reported that the Tokyo Metropolitan government plans to introduce a dating app called 'Tokyo Futari Story' later this year to address the country’s demographic challenges.

Japan’s East Asian neighbour, South Korea , is experiencing similar issues with low birth rates and an ageing population. As of June 2024, the average age in South Korea was 44.5 years.

The study , conducted by scientists from Stanford University and Nanyang Technological University in Singapore, was published in the journal Nature Aging. It involved tracking 108 participants over several years to monitor molecular changes associated with ageing. The findings reveal that these accelerated bursts of ageing are not evenly spread across a person’s lifespan, but rather concentrated around these specific ages.

In total, the study analyzed 135,239 biological features, generating a staggering 246.5 billion data points. The average participant was monitored for 626 days and contributed 47 samples, allowing researchers to create a detailed picture of how molecular changes progress over time. One participant was particularly deeply monitored over 6.8 years, contributing 367 samples, which offered a unique, in-depth view of ageing-related changes. 

“135,239 biological features (including 10,346 transcripts, 302 proteins, 814 metabolites, 66 cytokines, 51 clinical laboratory tests, 846 lipids, 52,460 gut microbiome taxons, 8,947 skin microbiome taxons, 8,947 oral microbiome taxons and 52,460 nasal microbiome taxons) were acquired, resulting in 246,507,456,400 data points. The average sampling period and number of samples for each participant were 626 days and 47 samples, respectively,” the study report read in part. 

The participants, 51.9% of whom were female, provided a wide range of biological samples, including blood, stool, skin swabs, oral swabs, and nasal swabs.

According to the report , the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic caused global life expectancy to drop to 70.9 years in 2020 and 2021. However, nearly all countries have now returned to pre-pandemic levels. In 2019, life expectancy stood at 72.6 years before the virus emerged.

The report further predicts that by the late 2050s, more than half of all deaths worldwide will occur at age 80 or older, which indicates a contrast to 1995 when only 17% of deaths were in this age group. 

Additionally, 2023 saw a milestone as the number of deaths among children under age five fell below 5 million for the first time in recent history. Despite this progress, 95% of these child deaths occurred in countries with growing populations, including the Democratic Republic of the Congo, India, Nigeria, and Pakistan.

Rising life expectancy is expected to impact global population trends. In countries where populations have already peaked, lower death rates and immigration are likely to slow population decline caused by low birth rates.

What they said

The National Institutes of Health (NIH) reports that "In Japan, many cases occur where a dead body is found in a house, but the housemate does not immediately report it. This has attracted attention since around 2017 as a typical example of the “80-50 problem,” a problem that occurs in households where older parents care for middle-aged hikikomori. In a 2019 Japanese survey, approximately 0.8% of 40-64-year-olds were middle-aged hikikomori living with their parents, indicating that approximately 300,000 households in Japan comprise older parents and middle-aged hikikomori."

The Korean government will propose a revised government organisation act within July to facilitate the launch of the new ministry, the Korean Times reports.

The ministry will take over responsibilities currently managed by the health and finance ministries, focusing on creating population policies and developing mid- to long-term strategies.

A key responsibility of the new ministry will be the allocation and coordination of budgets aimed at combating low birth rates across various related ministries.

The head of the new ministry will double as the deputy prime minister for social affairs, officials said, noting that this role is one of the two deputy prime minister posts currently held by the education minister.

Once operational, the ministry plans to bolster public campaigns and promotions to address demographic challenges. It will also conduct research and analysis of demographic data to inform its strategies.

As of June 26, 2024, South Korea’s population stood at approximately 51.74 million, representing about 0.64% of the total world population. The average age in South Korea is 44.5 years, highlighting the country’s ageing demographic.

In a bid to encourage traditional family lives among the younger generation, it was reported in 2017 that Seoul’s Dongguk and Kyung Hee Universities introduced mandatory dating courses.

These courses on dating, sex, love, and relationships target a generation increasingly shunning traditional family structures, according to the university authorities.

South Korea's birth rate , one of the lowest in the world, has been steadily declining. In 2024, the birth rate was 6.743 births per 1000 people, a 0.38% decline from 2023, which itself was a 1.93% decline from 2022.