Total: 281,562,465

Male: 140,800,047

Female: 140,762,418

Ethnic groups

Javanese 40.1%,

Sundanese 15.5%,

Malay 3.7%,

Batak 3.6%,

Madurese 3%,

Betawi 2.9%,

Minangkabau 2.7%,

Buginese 2.7%

other 25%

Languages

Bahasa Indonesia (official, modified form of Malay) English

Dutch

local dialects (of which the most widely spoken is Javanese); more than 700 languages are used in Indonesia.

Religions

Muslim 87.4%

Protestant 7.5%

Roman Catholic 3.1%

Hindu 1.7%

other 0.8%

Population distribution

Major concentration on the island of Java, which is considered one of the most densely populated places on earth; of the outer islands (those surrounding Java and Bali), Sumatra contains some of the most significant clusters, particularly in the south near the Selat Sunda, and along the northeastern coast near Medan. The cities of Makasar, Banjarmasin are also heavily populated. [1]

Economic Context

Economic overview

Real GDP (purchasing power parity)

$3.906 trillion (2023 est.)

$3.718 trillion (2022 est.)

$3.718 trillion (2022 est.)

Real GDP growth rate

5.05% (2023 est.)

5.31% (2022 est.)

3.7% (2021 est.)

Agricultural products: oil palm fruit, rice, sugarcane, maize, coconuts, cassava, bananas, eggs, mangoes/guavas.

Industries: petroleum and natural gas, textiles, automotive, electrical appliances, apparel, footwear, mining, cement, medical instruments and appliances, handicrafts, chemical fertilizers, plywood, rubber, processed food, jewellery, and tourism.

Industrial production growth rate: 5% (2023 est.)

Labour force: 140.931 million (2023 est.)

Unemployment rate: 3.42% (2023 est.), 3.46% (2022 est.), 3.83% (2021 est.) [1]

Economy in Context

Indonesia's GDP growth is forecast to average 5.1% annually from 2024 to 2026, despite challenges like the fading commodity boom, volatile food and energy prices, and rising geopolitical uncertainty, according to the World Bank.

Strong macroeconomic policies have attracted investment, but maintaining fiscal discipline and prioritising social spending and infrastructure remains crucial.

Inflation, driven by rising food prices and adverse climate conditions, is expected to average 3% in 2024. Bank Indonesia raised its interest rate to 6.25% in 2024 due to currency pressures but may start cutting rates next year. Public debt is projected to remain stable as the government increases social spending.

Emerging challenges include rising concentration in manufacturing, regional income disparities, weak wage growth, and limited labour mobility. Regulatory reforms to boost private sector investment and productivity are key to Indonesia's goal of becoming a high-income country by 2045. [2]

Political context

Government

Government type : Presidential Republic

Capital: Jakarta - Indonesian lawmakers on 18 January 2022 approved the relocation of the country’s capital from Jakarta to a site on the island of Borneo between Samarinda City and the port city of Balikpapan.Nusantara, officially the Capital City of Nusantara (Indonesian: Ibu Kota Nusantara, abbreviated IKN)

Administrative divisions : 35 provinces

Executive Branch

Chief of state: President Joko "Jokowi" Widodo(since 20 October 2014)

Head of government: President Joko "Jokowi" Widodo (since 20 October 2014)

Cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president

Elections/appointments: president and vice president directly elected by absolute majority popular vote for a 5-year term (eligible for a second term); election last held on 14 February 2024 (next to be held in 2029)

Election results:

2024: Prabowo Subianto elected president (assumes office 20 October 2024); percent of vote - Prabowo Subianto (GERINDRA) 58.6%

Anies Rasyid Baswedan (Independent) 24.9%

Ganjar Pranowo (PDI-P) 16.5%

2019: Joko WIDODO reelected president; percent of vote - Joko Widodo (PDI-P) 55.5%, Prabowo Subianto Djojohadikusumo (GERINDRA) 44.5%

Legislative Branch

Description: The bicameral People's Consultative Assembly or Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat (MPR) consists of:

Regional Representative Council or Dewan Perwakilan Daerah (136 seats; non-partisan members directly elected in multi-seat constituencies - 4 each from the country's 34 electoral districts - by proportional representation vote to serve 5-year terms), the Regional Representative Council has no legislative authority

House of Representatives or Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (580 seats; members directly elected in multi-seat constituencies by single non-transferable vote to serve 5-year terms)

Elections: Regional Representative Council - last held on 14 February 2024 (next to be held in 2029)

House of Representatives - last held on 14 February 2024 (next to be held in 2029) election results: Regional Representative Council - all seats elected on a non-partisan basis; composition - men 102, women 34, percentage women 25%

House of Representatives - Percent of vote by party:

PDI-P 16.7%                PAN 7.2%;

Golkar 15.3%               PD 7.4%

Gerindra 13.2%             PKS 8.4%

PKB 10.6%                   Nasdem 9.7%

other 11.5% (10 additional parties received votes);

Seats by party:

PDI-P 110                      Nasdem 69

Golkar 102                     PKS 53

Gerindra 86                   PD 44

PKB 68                         PAN 48

composition - men 449, women 126, percentage women 21.9%

Judicial branch

Highest court:

Supreme Court or Mahkamah Agung (51 judges divided into 8 chambers); Supreme Court judges nominated by Judicial Commission, appointed by president with concurrence of parliament; judges serve until retirement at age 65.

Parliamentary registered parties

Democrat Party or PD

Functional Groups Party or GOLKAR

Great Indonesia Movement Party or GERINDRA Indonesia Democratic Party-Struggle or PDI-P National Awakening Party or PKB

National Democratic Party or NasDem National Mandate Party or PAN

Prosperous Justice Party or PKS [1]

  International Political Context

1.   Geopolitical Importance

Strategic Location: Positioned at the crossroads of major global shipping routes, including the Malacca Strait, Indonesia is critical to global trade. Its location between the Pacific and Indian Oceans makes it vital for regional security and trade, with interests from major powers such as the U.S., China, and India.

ASEAN Leadership: As Southeast Asia’s largest economy and most populous country, Indonesia is a central player in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). It often shapes ASEAN’s diplomatic direction, promoting regional stability, economic integration, and collective responses to global issues.

  2.   Relations With Major Powers

China: Indonesia maintains strong economic ties with China, particularly through trade and investment in infrastructure projects as part of China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).

However, Indonesia is cautious about China’s growing influence in Southeast Asia and has clashed with China over territorial disputes in the South China Sea, particularly regarding Chinese fishing activities in Indonesia’s Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).

United States: The U.S. views Indonesia as a key partner in the Indo-Pacific strategy, focusing on maritime security, counterterrorism, and regional stability. While the U.S. and Indonesia cooperate on defence and trade, Indonesia's independent stance means it avoids overt alignment with U.S. strategic aims against China.

India: Indonesia shares strong relations with India, especially in maritime security and economic cooperation. Both countries are involved in multilateral efforts like the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA) to ensure stability in the Indian Ocean region.

Japan : Japan is a major investor in Indonesia, focusing on infrastructure, energy, and trade. Indonesia also cooperates closely with Japan on maritime security, especially in the context of countering China's assertiveness in regional waters.

  3.   South China Sea and Regional Security

South China Sea Disputes: While Indonesia is not a claimant in the South China Sea disputes, it has had conflicts with China over fishing activities in the Natuna Islands area, which lies within Indonesia's EEZ.

Indonesia has taken a firm stance on protecting its maritime sovereignty and has built up military infrastructure in the region to assert its control.

ASEAN Defense Diplomacy : As a key member of ASEAN, Indonesia advocates for peaceful resolution of disputes in the South China Sea and is involved in promoting dialogue between China and ASEAN countries to create a Code of Conduct in the region.

  4. Global Multilateralism

G20 Member: Indonesia is the only Southeast Asian nation in the G20, and it plays a significant role in shaping global economic governance. Indonesia hosted the G20

summit in 2022, emphasizing post-pandemic economic recovery, sustainable development, and global cooperation on climate change.

United Nations: Indonesia is an active participant in the United Nations, particularly in peacekeeping operations. It has consistently contributed troops to UN peacekeeping missions worldwide and promotes multilateralism in addressing global issues like climate change, terrorism, and conflict resolution.

Climate Diplomacy: As one of the world’s largest emitters of greenhouse gases, largely due to deforestation, Indonesia plays a crucial role in global climate negotiations. The country has committed to reducing carbon emissions, though it faces challenges balancing environmental sustainability with economic development. Indonesia is a vocal participant in the UN Climate Change Conference (COP).

5.   Economic Diplomacy

Bilateral and Regional Trade: Indonesia seeks to expand its economic ties through

bilateral trade agreements and is a member of several multilateral trade pacts, including the Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), the world’s largest trade agreement, which involves ASEAN, China, Japan, South Korea, Australia, and New Zealand.

Attracting Foreign Investment: Indonesia’s economic diplomacy focuses on attracting foreign investment, particularly in infrastructure, digital economy, and green energy.

While the country benefits from Chinese investment, it is diversifying its economic ties by promoting investment from Japan, the U.S., Europe, and India. [3]

Official Name: Republic of Ghana Capital: Accra

Population: 34,777,522 (as of 2024)

Official Languages: The most widely spoken local language in Ghana is Twi, particularly in the southern regions. Other commonly spoken languages include Ewe, Fante, and Ga. English is the official language and is widely spoken across the country.

Currency: Ghanaian Cedi (GHS)

Geographic Location: Ghana is located in West Africa, bordered by Côte d'Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, Togo to the east, and the Gulf of Guinea to the south. The country covers a land area of about 238,533 square kilometers.

Major Ethnic Groups: Ghana is home to more than seventy native ethnic groups. The major groups include Akan (47.5%), Mole-Dagbon (16.6%), Ewe (13.9%), Ga-Dangme (7.4%), Gurma (5.7%), and others.

Religions: Christianity is the dominant religion, followed by Islam. Traditional African beliefs are also practised.

Median Age: 21.1 years(GHANA_Country Overview).

Nationality: Ghanaian

[1] / [2]/ [3] / [4] / [5]

Political context

Government Type : Ghana is a unitary presidential constitutional republic. Since transitioning to democracy in 1992, the country has experienced over 30 years of uninterrupted democratic rule, making it a model of democracy in Africa.

Current Administration : The political landscape is currently dominated by preparations for the 2024 elections. President Nana Akufo-Addo's term is coming to an end, and the main political parties, the New Patriotic Party (NPP) and the National Democratic Congress (NDC), are fielding candidates. Leading contenders for the presidency include Vice President Mahamudu Bawumia (NPP) and former President John Mahama (NDC).

Recent Political Events : Ghana has faced economic challenges, including high inflation, public debt, and a return to the IMF for financial support. These issues are expected to play a crucial role in shaping the outcome of the 2024 elections.

Democratic Achievements: Ghana has completed eight elections since 1992, several of which resulted in peaceful transfers of power between incumbent and opposition parties, solidifying its democratic credentials.

[6] / [7] / [8]

Political Parties

National Democratic Congress (NDC) : Founded by Jerry Rawlings, the NDC leans toward socialist policies. It has historically been one of the two major political forces in Ghana.

New Patriotic Party (NPP) : The NPP is a liberal-conservative party with roots tracing back to the United Gold Coast Convention (UGCC). It is the other dominant party in Ghana’s two-party system.

Other Parties : Although there are many smaller parties, they struggle to break through the NPP-NDC dominance. Several Nkrumahist parties, which follow the socialist traditions of Ghana’s first president, Kwame Nkrumah, have a limited presence.

 [9] / [10] / [6] / [7] / [11] / [8]

Parliamentary Structure

Unicameral Parliament: Ghana has a unicameral parliament consisting of 275 members, elected from single-member constituencies every four years. Members of Parliament play a vital role in overseeing the executive and passing legislation.

Electoral Process: Presidential and parliamentary elections are held simultaneously every four years. The president is elected by an absolute majority, while parliamentarians are elected by a first-past-the-post system.

[12]

Hierarchy in the State

President : The president is both the head of state and government, responsible for military leadership, foreign policy, and domestic governance. The president appoints ministers and other key officials with parliamentary approval.

Vice President : The Vice President acts as the President's deputy, taking over presidential duties in the event of the President's absence, resignation, or death. The Vice President also assumes leadership if the President is temporarily incapacitated.

Cabinet : Comprising the President, Vice President, and no more than 19 ministers of state, the Cabinet helps determine the general policy of the government. Ministers are appointed by the President and are primarily drawn from Parliament.

Regional Ministers: Each of Ghana’s 16 regions has a Regional Minister appointed by the President, who represents the President in regional affairs and coordinates government administration in the region.

Advisory Councils : The President is supported by several advisory bodies, including the National Security Council and the National Development Planning Commission, which provide guidance on security, economic policy, and development planning. [13]  

Table of Elections

Presidential Election: Held every four years, with the next election scheduled for December 7, 2024. A candidate must win more than 50% of valid votes to be elected President. Presidential candidates must be at least 40 years old and born Ghanaian citizens.

Parliamentary Elections: Also held every four years, in conjunction with the presidential election. The 275 members of parliament are elected from single-member constituencies through a simple majority vote.

Economic context

GDP : Ghana’s economy, valued at $74.3 billion in 2023, faces significant challenges, including high public debt and persistent inflation.

Key Sectors : The economy is driven by agriculture, oil, and gas, with the agricultural sector being a major employer. Cocoa remains the largest export crop, followed by oil and gold. The country has also diversified into tourism and services in recent years.

Challenges : Ghana continues to face serious macroeconomic challenges, including inflation (which peaked at 54.1% in December 2022), high public debt (projected to be over 82.1% of GDP by 2024), and a weak banking sector.

International Aid and Debt Management: The government has sought assistance from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to stabilize its economy after fiscal mismanagement and external shocks, including the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and the Russia-Ukraine conflict.

[14] / [15] / [6] / [16] / [17] / [18] / [19] / [20]

International political context

Relations with the International Community: Ghana enjoys strong diplomatic relations, particularly within the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the African Union (AU). It also maintains good ties with major global players like the United States, China, and the European Union.

Trade Agreements: Ghana is a member of several key international trade agreements, including the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) and the interim Economic Partnership Agreement with the European Union, providing the country with duty-free access to key markets.

Security Concerns : Ghana remains stable, though it faces growing threats from regional terrorism, particularly from jihadist groups in neighbouring countries. Additionally, land and resource disputes among ethnic groups in the north present domestic security challenges. [21] / [22]

Official Name : Republic of Albania (Republika e Shqipërisë)

Capital : Tirana

Population : Approximately 2.79 million (2024)

Official Language : Albanian

Currency : Albanian Lek (ALL)

Geographic Location : Southeastern Europe, bordered by Montenegro, Kosovo, North Macedonia, and Greece, with coastlines along the Adriatic and Ionian Seas.

Total Area : 28,748 square kilometers

Political Context

Government Type : Albania is a parliamentary republic . It has a multi-party system with regular elections and separation of powers among the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.

President : The President is the ceremonial head of state and serves a five-year term. The role focuses on representing the unity of the Albanian people, though it has limited executive functions.

Prime Minister : The Prime Minister is the head of government and holds most executive powers, responsible for managing the country's administration.

Albania is a candidate for EU membership , with ongoing reforms in governance, judicial independence, and anti-corruption efforts as part of the accession process.

Political Parties

Albania’s political landscape is dominated by two main parties and few smaller ones.

Socialist Party of Albania (PS) : Center-left, currently the ruling party, focusing on social welfare, economic reforms, and EU integration.

Democratic Party of Albania (PD) : Center-right, the main opposition party, promoting free-market reforms, anti-corruption measures, and transparency.

Parliamentary Structure

Albania has a unicameral parliamentary system:

Kuvendi (Assembly) : Consists of 140 members elected for four-year terms through a proportional representation system. Elections are held every four years.

Hierarchy in the State

President : Bajram Begaj (since July 2022)

Role: Ceremonial head of state, elected by the Assembly for a five-year term.

Prime Minister : Edi Rama (Socialist Party, since 2013)

Role: Head of government and holds executive power.

Deputy Prime Minister : Belinda Balluku (since 2021)

Role: Assists the Prime Minister and manages key government portfolios.

Minister for Europe and Foreign Affairs : Igli Hasani (since 2023)

Role: Oversees Albania's foreign policy, particularly EU accession efforts.

Minister of Interior : Bledar Çuçi (since 2020)

Role: Responsible for internal security, law enforcement, and border control.

Table / Timeline of Elections

Election Type Last Held Next Scheduled Details

Parliamentary Election April 25, 2021 2025 The Socialist Party won a majority with 74 of 140 seats, securing Prime Minister Edi Rama’s third term.

Presidential Election June 4, 2022 2027 The President is elected by parliament for a five-year term. Bajram Begaj was elected by the Assembly.

Way of Voting

Parliamentary Elections : Albania uses a proportional representation system with closed-party lists.

Voter Eligibility : Citizens aged 18 and above can vote. Voting is mandatory. The electoral threshold for parties is 1% at the national level, and 3% for coalitions.

Last Election Results

Parliamentary Elections (April 25, 2021) :

Prime Minister : Edi Rama (Socialist Party)

The Socialist Party won 74 of 140 seats , ensuring a majority.

Opposition : The Democratic Party (PD) won 59 seats .

Key Outcome : The elections confirmed Edi Rama’s third term as Prime Minister.

Economic Context

GDP : $25.43 billion (2024)

GDP Per Capita : Approximately $8,920

Main Economic Sectors : Agriculture, energy, services, manufacturing, and tourism.

Tourism : Rapidly growing, especially along the Adriatic and Ionian coastlines.

Challenges : High unemployment rates, corruption, and slow progress in judicial reforms affecting EU accession.

International Political Context

U Accession : Albania has been an EU candidate country since 2014 . Official negotiations for accession began in 2022. Reforms in the judiciary, anti-corruption, and public administration are priorities for aligning with EU standards.

NATO Membership : Albania has been a NATO member since 2009, and its foreign policy aligns with the EU and NATO.

Relations with Neighbors : Albania maintains positive relations with its Western Balkan neighbours and plays an active role in regional cooperation through organizations such as the Berlin Process and CEFTA (Central European Free Trade Agreement).

Total: 1,977,093

Male: 1,017,992

Female: 959,101 (2024 est.)

Ethnic groups

Albanians 92.9%

Bosniaks 1.6%

Serbs 1.5%

Turk 1.1%

Languages

Albanian (official) 94.5%

Serbian (official) 3.6%,

Religions:

Muslim 95.6%

Roman Catholic 2.2%

Orthodox 1.5%

Population distribution

Population clusters exist throughout the country, the largest being in the east in and around the capital of Pristina [1]

Economic Context

Real GDP (purchasing power parity)

$23.794 billion (2023 est.)

$23.025 billion (2022 est.)

$22.08 billion (2021 est.)

Real GDP growth rate

3.34% (2023 est.)

4.28% (2022 est.)

10.75% (2021 est.)

Agricultural products: wheat, corn, berries, potatoes, peppers, fruit; dairy, livestock; fish Industries: mineral mining, construction materials, base metals, leather, machinery, appliances, foodstuffs and beverages, textiles

Industrial production growth rate: 1.56% (2023 est.)

Labor force: 500,300

Unemployment rate: 30.5% (2017 est.), 27.5% (2016 est.) [1]

Kosovo is a parliamentary republic. It declared independence on February 17, 2008, and is recognized as an independent country by more than 100 United Nations members.

Kosovo, a potential candidate for European Union (EU) membership, signed a Stabilization Association Agreement with the EU that has been in force since April 2016. The last parliamentary elections were held on February 14, 2021, and the current government was elected on March 22, 2021.

Kosovo has experienced steady economic progress since declaring independence, with a nearly 50% increase in per-capita income and a 35% reduction in the poverty rate.

The country has successfully transitioned away from a growth model based on high dependence on foreign aid inflows, outperforming peer countries of similar per-capita income thanks to a steady expansion in consumption and investment, with a strong impetus from diaspora inflows, public investment in infrastructure, and financial deepening, amid a stable fiscal stance and an environment of low inflation.

Although largely inclusive, Kosovo’s growth has not been sufficient to provide enough formal jobs, particularly for women and youth.

To continue to grow, Kosovo needs to unleash productivity gains and create more quality jobs. This will require addressing infrastructure bottlenecks, prioritizing human capital investment, and creating an environment more conducive to private sector development.

Further actions are also needed to promote environmental sustainability, including the fulfillment of the EU’s environmental acquis. [2]

Political Context

Government type: Parliamentary Republic

Capital: Pristina

Administrative divisions: 38 municipalities

Executive Branch

Chief of State: President Vjosa OSMANI-Sadriu (since 4 April 2021)

Head of government: Prime Minister Albin KURTI (since 22 March 2021)

Cabinet: Cabinet elected by the National Assembly

Elections/appointments: President indirectly elected by at least two-thirds majority vote of the Assembly for a 5-year term; if a candidate does not attain a two-thirds threshold in the first two ballots, the candidate winning a simple majority vote in the third ballot is elected (eligible for a second term); election last held on 3 to 4 April 2021 (next to be held in 2026); prime minister indirectly elected by the Assem

Election results:

2021: Vjosa OSMANI-Sadriu elected president in third ballot; Assembly vote - Vjosa

OSMANI-Sadriu (Guxo!) 71 votes; Albin KURTI (LVV) elected prime minister; Assembly vote

- 67 for, 30 against

2017: Ramush HARADINAJ (AAK) elected prime minister; Assembly vote - 61 for, 1 abstention, 0 against (opposition boycott)

2016: Hashim THACI elected president in third ballot; Assembly vote - Hashim THACI

(PDK) 71 votes

Legislative Branch

Description : unicameral Assembly or Kuvendi i Kosoves/Skupstina Kosova (120 seats; 100 members directly elected by open-list proportional representation vote with 20 seats reserved for ethnic minorities - 10 for Serbs and 10 for other ethnic minorities; members serve 4-year terms)

Elections : last held on 14 February 2021 (next to be held in 2025)

Election results: percent of vote by party LVV 50%,

PDK 16.9%

LDK 12.7%,

AAK 7.1%

Serb List 5.1%

other 8.2%;

Seats by party/coalition:

LVV 58

PDK 19

LDK 15

Serb List 10

AAK 8

other 10

composition - men 79, women 41, percentage women 34.2%

Judicial Branch

Supreme Court (consists of the court president and 18 judges and organized into Appeals Panel of the Kosovo Property Agency and Special Chamber); Constitutional Court (consists of the court president, vice president, and 7 judges) [1]

International Political Context

Kosovo's international political context is shaped by its complex status as a partially recognized state, its tense relationship with Serbia, and its aspirations for deeper integration with the European Union (EU) and NATO.

1.     Recognition and Diplomatic Status : Kosovo declared independence from Serbia in 2008, which has been recognized by more than 100 countries, including the

U.S. and most EU nations. However, Serbia, Russia, and several other countries, including five EU member states (Spain, Slovakia, Romania, Greece, and Cyprus), have not recognized Kosovo. This has complicated Kosovo's efforts to gain full international recognition and join international organizations such as the United Nations.

2.     EU Accession and Dialogue with Serbia : Kosovo is engaged in EU-facilitated talks with Serbia to normalize relations, a key condition for both countries to advance their EU membership aspirations.

The Brussels Agreement (2013) and the subsequent Ohrid Agreement (2023) outline steps toward normalization, but implementation remains slow, particularly on issues such as the establishment of the Community of Serb Municipalities (CSM), which would grant autonomy to Serb-majority areas in Kosovo.

3.     NATO and Security : Kosovo's security relies heavily on the NATO-led KFOR mission, which has been present since 1999 to ensure peace and stability in the region. Kosovo has also sought closer ties with NATO, and while it is not yet a member, Kosovo's security institutions are aligned with NATO standards. Serbia opposes Kosovo's aspirations for NATO membership, fearing it would solidify Kosovo's separation.

4.     U.S. and Western Involvement : The United States has been one of Kosovo's strongest allies, supporting its independence and playing a crucial role in mediation between Kosovo and Serbia. The U.S. continues to be a key player in pushing for normalization of relations and supporting Kosovo's integration into international bodies. Western powers generally see Kosovo's independence as vital to Balkan stability.

5.     Russia and China’s Role : Russia and China, both of which support Serbia's stance on Kosovo, have blocked Kosovo's attempts to join the UN and other international organizations. Russia uses its veto power in the UN Security Council to prevent Kosovo's membership, and both Russia and China have voiced concerns about Western influence in the Balkans.

Russia, in particular, sees the Kosovo issue as a precedent for its own territorial disputes (such as in Ukraine and Georgia), making it a geopolitical flashpoint.

6.     Kosovo’s Integration into International Institutions : Kosovo has made progress in joining several international institutions, including the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund. It has signed a Stabilization and Association Agreement with the EU, a step toward eventual membership. However, its path is slowed by its unresolved status with Serbia and the lack of full recognition by all EU members.

7.     Current Challenges : Recent tensions have flared up in northern Kosovo, where the Serb minority population remains loyal to Serbia. Elections in these areas have been marred by violence, and Kosovo’s government has faced difficulties in extending its authority in Serb-majority regions. The EU and U.S. have been actively involved in trying to de-escalate these tensions.

In summary, Kosovo's international political status is marked by ongoing challenges in achieving full recognition, navigating delicate negotiations with Serbia, and striving for integration into Euro-Atlantic structures amidst opposition from key global powers like Russia and China. Its relationship with the EU and U.S. remains pivotal to its future development and international standing.

Official Name : Republic of the Philippines (Republika ng Pilipinas)

Capital : Manila (Executive offices, including the President, are located in Metro Manila)

Population : 113.88 million (as of 2023)

Official Languages : Filipino and English

Currency : Philippine Peso (PHP)

Geographic Location : Southeast Asia, with a total land area of 300,000 square kilometres, composed of 7,641 islands.

Major Regions : Luzon, Visayas, Mindanao

Political Context

Government Type : The Philippines is a unitary presidential constitutional republic. The 1987 Constitution lays out a tripartite system of government composed of the Executive, Legislative, and Judiciary branches.

Recent Administration : The current president, Ferdinand Marcos Jr., was elected in 2022. His administration is focused on economic growth, infrastructure development, and balancing relations with both China and the U.S. Marcos Jr.'s presidency represents the return of the Marcos family to power after Ferdinand Marcos Sr.'s dictatorship, which lasted from 1965 to 1986.

Historical Background : The political system in the Philippines has been influenced by colonial periods under Spain and the U.S. A major event was the imposition of martial law in 1972 under Ferdinand Marcos Sr., leading to a dictatorship until his ousting in 1986, which restored democracy.

Political Parties

The Philippines has a multi-party system. Political parties generally form alliances during elections, and personalities tend to dominate over party platforms.

PDP-Laban (Partido Demokratiko Pilipino-Lakas ng Bayan) : Associated with Rodrigo Duterte and his allies.

Lakas-CMD (Lakas–Christian Muslim Democrats) : A centrist party currently aligned with Vice President Sara Duterte.

Nacionalista Party : The oldest political party in the Philippines, currently affiliated with the Marcos family.

Liberal Party : Historically the primary opposition party, with a pro-democracy and liberal agenda.

Nationalist People’s Coalition (NPC) : Centrist party with wide support across provinces.

Party-List Representation : Minor parties represent marginalized sectors like labourers, women, and indigenous peoples.

Parliamentary Structure

The Philippine Congress is bicameral , consisting of:

  Senate : Composed of 24 senators, elected nationally for six-year terms. They serve as part of the upper house and play a key role in foreign policy , approving treaties, and other legislative matters.

House of Representatives : Composed of 316 members. Of these, 253 represent legislative districts and 63 are elected through a party-list system to ensure representation of marginalized sectors. Members serve for three-year terms, and the House initiates revenue bills and can impeach officials.

Hierarchy in the State

President : Ferdinand "Bongbong" Marcos Jr. (since 2022)

Role : The head of state and government, responsible for foreign affairs, military leadership, and policy directives.

Vice President : Sara Duterte (since 2022)

Role : Also serves as the Secretary of Education under the current administration.

Senate President : Juan Miguel Zubiri (since 2022)

Role : Presides over the Senate and ensures the passage of legislative measures.

Speaker of the House : Martin Romualdez (since 2022)

Role : Leads the House of Representatives and coordinates legislative agendas.

Secretary of Foreign Affairs (MFA) : Enrique Manalo

Role : Oversees the country’s diplomatic relations and foreign policy.

Secretary of the Interior and Local Government (MIA) : Benhur Abalos

Role : Manages local government operations and ensures public safety.

Secretary of National Defense : Gilberto Teodoro Jr.

Role : Responsible for defence policy and overseeing the Armed Forces of the Philippines.

Table of Elections

Election Type Last Held Next Scheduled Details

Presidential Election May 9, 2022 May 2028 Ferdinand Marcos Jr. won with 58.77% of the vote. The President serves a six-year term with no possibility of re-election.

Senatorial Election May 9, 2022 May 2025 Senators are elected for six-year terms, with half the Senate up for re-election every three years.

House of Representatives May 9, 2022 May 2025 Members serve three-year terms. Both district representatives and party-list representatives are elected.

Local Elections May 9, 2022 May 2025 Includes governors, mayors, and other local officials.

Way of Voting: Presidential, Legislative, and Local Elections

Presidential Elections :

Election Frequency : Every six years.

Eligibility : Filipino citizens at least 18 years old who have resided in the Philippines for at least one year and in their voting district for at least six months prior to the election.

Process : The Philippines uses a first-past-the-post system for the Presidential

and Vice-Presidential elections, meaning the candidate with the most votes wins.

Voters cast their ballots directly for the President and Vice President, who are elected separately.

Senate Elections:

Election Frequency : Every three years, with half of the 24 Senate seats up for election.

Eligibility : Filipino citizens aged 18 and above, subject to the same residency requirements.

Process : Senators are elected at-large (nationwide), with voters selecting up to 12 candidates during election years. The top 12 candidates with the most votes win the seats.

House of Representatives Elections:

Election Frequency : Every three years.

Eligibility : Same as for other national elections.

Process : The House of Representatives consists of two types of seats:

District Representatives : Elected through a first-past-the-post system in single-member districts.

Party-list Representatives : Selected based on proportional

representation. Voters choose a party, and the number of seats a party wins depends on the total number of votes it receives nationwide.

Party-list seats are reserved for marginalized groups.

Local Elections:

Election Frequency : Held every three years, concurrently with congressional elections.

Process : Local officials, including governors, mayors, and councillors, are elected via first-past-the-post voting within their respective provinces, cities, or municipalities.

Electronic Voting and Counting:

The Philippines has adopted automated voting systems using Precinct Count Optical Scan (PCOS) machines. These machines scan paper ballots where voters mark their chosen candidates.

The votes are then automatically counted and transmitted electronically, ensuring a faster and more transparent tallying process.

Last Election Results

Presidential Election (May 9, 2022) :

President : Ferdinand “Bongbong” Marcos Jr. (PDP-Laban/Partido Federal ng Pilipinas)

Votes : 31.63 million (58.77%)

Vice President : Sara Duterte (Lakas-CMD)

Votes : 32.2 million (61.53%)

Main Opponent : Leni Robredo (Independent), who received around 15 million votes (27.94%).

Senate Elections (May 9, 2022):

Half of the 24 Senate seats were up for election.

Top 12 Elected Senators : Some key winners included Robinhood Padilla (17.6 million votes), Loren Legarda (24 million votes), and Raffy Tulfo (23.3 million votes).

House of Representatives Elections (May 9, 2022):

District Representatives : PDP-Laban won the largest number of district seats.

Party-list Representatives : The ACT-CIS Party-list secured the most votes in the party-list system. [1]

Economic Context

GDP : $402.6 billion (2023)

GDP Growth Rate : The economy is recovering post-pandemic with a growth rate of 6.4% in 2023, driven by domestic consumption, government spending on infrastructure, and strong remittance inflows.

Key Sectors : The economy is heavily service-oriented, particularly in Business Process Outsourcing (BPO) . Other key sectors include manufacturing, agriculture, and tourism.

Challenges : The country faces rising inflation, high public debt due to pandemic-related expenditures, and poverty (around 18% of the population lives below the poverty line).

Remittances : Remittances from Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) contribute around 10% of the GDP, making them a critical driver of household consumption.

International Political Context

Relations with the United States : The Philippines is a close U.S. ally, with strong historical ties and a Mutual Defense Treaty signed in 1951. There are ongoing military exercises between the two nations.

South China Sea Dispute : The Philippines is engaged in a territorial dispute with China over the South China Sea (referred to as the West Philippine Sea locally). Despite a favourable ruling from the Permanent Court of Arbitration in 2016, China continues to assert its claims. The Marcos administration has sought a more balanced approach, working with both China on economic cooperation and maintaining strong security ties with the U.S.

ASEAN Relations : As a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) , the Philippines plays an active role in regional diplomacy, especially regarding security, economic integration, and addressing climate change.

Counter-Terrorism : The government continues to address security issues related to the communist insurgency (New People's Army) and Islamist extremist groups like Abu Sayyaf and ISIS-affiliated factions in Mindanao.

Official Name: State of Qatar (Dawlat Qaṭar)

Capital: Doha

Population: Approximately 2.9 million (2023), of which around 85-90% are expatriates.

Official Language: Arabic (English widely used as a second language)

Currency: Qatari Riyal (QAR)

Geographic Location: Located in Western Asia on the northeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, bordered by Saudi Arabia to the south and the Persian Gulf to the north, east, and west.

Total Area: 11,571 square kilometres

Major City: Doha (capital and economic hub)

Political Context

Government Type: Qatar is an absolute monarchy, where the Emir holds near-total control over the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.

Legal System: Qatar’s legal system is a blend of civil law, Islamic (Sharia) law, and Qatari statutory laws. Sharia plays a significant role in personal, family, and criminal matters.

Emir’s Role: The Emir of Qatar is the head of state, responsible for key decisions in governance, foreign policy, and military matters.

The Emir holds the ultimate authority over the executive branch and appoints key government officials, including the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers.

Recent Developments: Under the leadership of Emir Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani, who took power in 2013, Qatar has continued its ambitious modernisation plans, including diversifying the economy away from oil and gas and hosting global events such as the 2022 FIFA World Cup. Qatar has also positioned itself as a mediator in regional conflicts.

Political Parties

No Political Parties: Political parties are not allowed in Qatar. The Emir and the ruling family control the political system, and most political decisions are made within the royal family or appointed government officials. Political dissent is not tolerated, and there is no formal opposition.

Parliamentary Structure

Advisory Council (Shura Council): ○ Qatar has a unicameral legislative body known as the Shura Council. The Council was reformed in 2021 to include elected members for the first time in Qatar’s history.

Composition: The Shura Council consists of 45 members, of whom 30 are elected by popular vote, and 15 are appointed by the Emir.

Role: The Shura Council has legislative authority to review, discuss, and approve proposed laws. However, the Emir has the final say on most major policies.

Limitations: The Council’s powers are limited in matters relating to defence, security, economic policy , and constitutional amendments.

Hierarchy in the State

Emir: Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani (since 2013)

Role: The Emir holds executive power, is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and sets the overall policy of the state.

Prime Minister: Sheikh Mohammed bin Abdulrahman Al Thani (since 2023)

Role: As Prime Minister, he leads the executive branch, oversees government administration, and implements the policies set by the Emir.

Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs: Sheikh Mohammed bin Abdulrahman Al Thani (since 2016, serving as Foreign Minister and became Prime Minister in 2023)

Role: Oversees Qatar’s foreign relations and has been instrumental in positioning Qatar as a key player in international diplomacy, including mediating conflicts in the Middle East.

Minister of Interior (MIA): Sheikh Khalifa bin Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani

Role: Responsible for internal security, law enforcement, and public order.

Minister of Finance: Ali bin Ahmed Al Kuwari

Role: Oversees fiscal policies, government budgets, and financial strategy, crucial for Qatar's economic diversification efforts.

Table of Elections

Election Type Last Held Next Scheduled Details

Shura Council Election October 2, 2021 2025 First-ever elections for 30 seats in the Shura Council. Candidates must be of Qatari nationality.

Municipal Elections April 2023 2027 Elect members of the Central Municipal Council, which advises on municipal matters.

Emirate Succession No election Hereditary The Emir is succeeded by a member of the Al Thani family.

Way of Voting: Shura Council and Municipal Elections

Shura Council Elections:

Election Frequency: Every four years (next election in 2025).

Eligibility:

Voters: Qatari citizens over the age of 18. Citizenship is required for at least 15 years, with both parents being Qatari nationals.

Candidates: Qatari citizens over the age of 30 who are well-versed in reading and writing in Arabic.

Process: The Shura Council is made up of 45 members:

30 members are elected by popular vote using first-past-the-post voting in electoral districts.

The remaining 15 members are appointed by the Emir.

Voting Method: Citizens vote in person at polling stations using paper ballots, where they mark their preferred candidate for their district. The candidate with the most votes in each district wins the seat. · Municipal Elections:

Election Frequency: Every four years (last held in 2023).

Eligibility: Qatari citizens aged 18 and above can vote. Municipal candidates must be Qatari citizens, over 30 years of age, and reside in the constituency they represent.

Process: Members of the Central Municipal Council (CMC) are elected via first-past-the-post voting. The CMC has advisory powers related to municipal services and local governance.

No Voting for National Executive Positions: Qatar is an absolute monarchy, and the Emir is not elected by popular vote. Instead, the Emirate succession follows the hereditary process, where the ruling Al Thani family selects the Emir.

The Prime Minister and other ministers are appointed by the Emir without electoral input.

[1] Shura Council - State of Qatar and Al Jazeera - Qatar Elections

Last Election Results

Shura Council Election (October 2, 2021):

Turnout: Approximately 63.5% of eligible voters.

Seats Contested: 30 elected seats (out of the 45 total).

Key Outcomes:

A diverse range of candidates ran across 30 electoral districts.

The elected members included a mix of professionals, tribal leaders, and civil servants. Notably, no women were elected in this first-ever election.

The remaining 15 members of the Shura Council were appointed by the Emir.

Economic Context

GDP: $243 billion (2023)

GDP Per Capita : One of the highest in the world at approximately $82,886 (2023).

Economic Model: Qatar’s economy is heavily reliant on oil and natural gas, particularly liquefied natural gas (LNG). Qatar holds one of the largest natural gas reserves globally and is the largest exporter of LNG.

Diversification: Qatar’s National Vision 2030 aims to diversify the economy beyond hydrocarbons, focusing on sectors such as finance, tourism, real estate, and education. The government has made significant investments in infrastructure and innovation.

Challenges: Qatar’s reliance on expatriate labor, economic dependence on hydrocarbons, and regional political dynamics (like the 2017-2021 Gulf diplomatic crisis) pose challenges to its growth.

International Political Context

Regional Influence: Qatar plays a pivotal role in regional diplomacy and has maintained a relatively independent foreign policy compared to other Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states. Its hosting of Al Jazeera has been a major driver of its international influence.

Mediation Role: Qatar has successfully positioned itself as a mediator in confl icts across the Middle East, including facilitating peace talks between the U.S. and the Taliban and involvement in peace negotiations for Sudan, Palestine, and Lebanon.

Gulf Crisis (2017-2021): In 2017, Qatar faced a blockade imposed by Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Bahrain, and Egypt, accusing it of supporting terrorism and aligning too closely with Iran. The crisis ended in January 2021, with Qatar emerging diplomatically stronger after maintaining its foreign policy positions throughout the blockade.

U.S.-Qatar Relations: Qatar is a major non-NATO ally of the United States and hosts the Al Udeid Air Base, the largest U.S. military base in the region. The base plays a critical role in U.S. operations in the Middle East.

Relations with Iran: Despite tensions with its Gulf neighbours, Qatar maintains relatively good relations with Iran, particularly due to shared natural gas reserves

Population

total: 21,982,608

male: 10,642,043

female: 11,340,565

Ethnic groups

Sinhalese 74.9%

Sri Lankan

Tamil 11.2%

Sri Lankan Moors 9.2%

Indian Tamil 4.2%

other 0.5%

Languages

Sinhala (official) 87%,

Tamil (official) 28.5%,

English 23.8%

Religions

Buddhist (official) 70.2%

Hindu 12.6% Muslim 9.7%

Roman Catholic 6.1%

Christian 1.3%,

Population distribution

The population is primarily concentrated within a broad wet zone in the southwest, urban centres along the eastern coast, and on the Jaffna Peninsula in the north. [1]

Political Context

Government type: Presidential Republic

Capital: Colombo (commercial capital), Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte (legislative capital)

Administrative divisions: 9 provinces; Central, Eastern, North Central, Northern, North Western, Sabaragamuwa, Southern, Uva, Western.

Executive branch

Chief of state: President Anura Kumara Dissanayake (since 23 September 2024) Head of government: President Anura Kumara Dissanayake (since 23 September 2024)

Cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the president in consultation with the prime minister

Elections/appointments: The president is directly elected by preferential majority popular vote for a 5-year term (eligible for a second term); election last held on 21 September 2024 election results:

2024: Anura Kumara Dissanayake elected president (21st of September), percent of vote - Anura Kumara Dissanayake(NPP) 41.1%, Sajith Premadasa(SJB) 32.7%, Ranil Wickremesinghe(IND) 17.3%

2022: Ranil WICKREMESINGHE elected president by Parliament on 20 July 2022; Parliament vote - WICKREMESINGHE (UNP) 134, Dullas ALAHAPPERUMA (SLPP) 82

2019: Gotabaya RAJAPAKSA elected president; percent of vote - Gotabaya RAJAPAKSA (SLPP) 52.2%, Sajith PREMADASA (UNP) 42%, other 5.8% Legislative branch

Description: unicameral Parliament (225 seats; 196 members directly elected in multi-seat district constituencies by proportional representation vote using a preferential method in which voters select 3 candidates in order of preference; remaining 29 seats, referred to as the "national list" are allocated by each party secretary according to the island-wide proportional vote the party obtains; members serve 5-year terms)

Elections: last held on 5 August 2020 (next to be held in August 2025)

Election Results: percent of vote by party/coalition - SLFPA 59.1%, SJB 23.9%, JVP 3.8%, TNA 2.8%, UNP 2.2%, TNPF 0.6%, EPDP 0.5%, other 7.1%; seats by party/coalition - SLFPA 145, SJB 54, TNA 10, JVP 3, other 13; composition- men 213, women 12, percentage women 5.3%

Judicial branch

Highest court: Supreme Court of the Republic (consists of the chief justice and 9 justices); note - the court has exclusive jurisdiction to review legislation Judge selection and term of office: chief justice nominated by the Constitutional Council (CC), a 9-member high-level advisory body, and appointed by the president; other justices nominated by the CC and appointed by the president on the advice of the chief justice; all justices can serve until age 65 Subordinate courts: Court of Appeals; High Courts; Magistrates' Courts; municipal and primary Courts.

Parliamentary registered parties

Sri Lanka People's Freedom Alliance (SLPFA) Samagi Jana Balawegaya (SJB) Supreme Lanka Coalition (ULS)

Tamil National Alliance (TNA) Democratic Tamil National Alliance (DTNA) National People's Power (NPP) Tamil National People's Front (TNPF) Tamil People's National Alliance (TPNA) [2]

Economic Overview

Real GDP (purchasing power parity) $287.132 billion (2023 est.) $293.885 billion (2022 est.) $317.188 billion (2021 est.)

Real GDP growth rate -2.3% (2023 est.) -7.35% (2022 est.) -4.21% (2021 est.)

Agricultural products : rice, coconuts, plantains, tea, sugarcane, milk, cassava, fibre crops, maize. Industries: processing of rubber, tea, coconuts, tobacco and other agricultural commodities; tourism; clothing and textiles; mining Industrial production growth rate: 9.23% (2023 est.) Labor force: 8.707 million.

Unemployment rate: 6.36% (2023 est.) 6.33% (2022 est.) 5.26% (2021 est.) source Economy in Context The growth prospects for the economy depend on effective debt restructuring and ongoing structural reforms.

While fiscal adjustments aimed at increasing revenue may negatively impact disposable incomes and demand in the short term, a modest recovery is expected, though it won't significantly alleviate the welfare losses from the crisis.

Poverty rates are projected to stay above 22% until 2026. Inflation may rise slightly due to new revenue measures and diminishing base effects, although it is expected to remain manageable in the medium term. The current account is projected to stay in surplus, supported by slow import growth and recovering tourism and remittances.

Despite a declining primary deficit, high-interest payments will keep the overall fiscal balance elevated in 2024. Recent economic data shows a 2.3% contraction in 2023, with a rebound in late-year growth driven by tourism, though sectors like construction and manufacturing struggled.

Inflation decreased to single digits in mid-2023 but has begun to rise again due to increased food and utility prices. Labour force participation has fallen, and many households face food insecurity and adopt risky financial coping strategies. Following a period of monetary tightening, the central bank cut policy rates significantly, improving liquidity and lowering government borrowing costs, while private sector credit has been recovering.

For the first time since 1977, the current account posted a surplus, aided by strong remittances and tourism. Challenges remain significant, including the aftermath of a severe economic crisis in 2022 marked by high inflation and currency depreciation, leading to a spike in poverty and food insecurity.

Structural reforms have been implemented, including utility pricing adjustments and new revenue measures, which, while stabilising the economy, have strained household finances. Domestic debt restructuring was completed in September 2023, with ongoing negotiations with external creditors and recent agreements with the IMF signalling progress in reform efforts. [3]

International Political Context

1. Geopolitical Importance Strategic Location:

Sri Lanka is positioned near critical shipping lanes, making it a key player in maritime trade routes connecting Asia, the Middle East, and Europe. Its location is vital for global trade and security, which attracts interest from major powers like India, China, the United States, and Japan.

Indian Ocean Region (IOR): As a nation within the IOR, Sri Lanka is a member of regional organizations like the Indian Ocean Rim Association (IORA). Its proximity to India also makes it a critical player in South Asian regional politics.

2. Relations with Major Powers

India: Historically, India has played a significant role in Sri Lanka’s domestic and foreign policy. The relationship is complex, especially due to India's involvement in the Sri Lankan Civil War (1983-2009) and its concerns about Tamil populations in both countries.

India continues to be a dominant influence in Sri Lanka’s foreign policy, offering developmental assistance, investment, and regional security cooperation. India is also keen to counter China's growing influence in Sri Lanka.

China: Sri Lanka has increasingly aligned itself with China, especially through the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). China has invested heavily in infrastructure projects, such as the Hambantota Port and the Colombo Port City.

This growing relationship has led to concerns about "debt-trap diplomacy," where Chinese loans burden Sri Lanka’s economy, leading to increased Chinese influence over domestic affairs. The leasing of Hambantota Port to a Chinese company for 99 years has been a symbol of this influence.

United States: The U.S. sees Sri Lanka as a strategic partner in its Indo-Pacific strategy, focusing on maintaining a free and open Indo-Pacific. While military cooperation and economic ties have been developed, Sri Lanka’s growing alignment with China has strained relations with Washington at times. The U.S. also provides aid for governance reforms and human rights improvements.

Japan: Japan has maintained a consistent relationship with Sri Lanka, offering development assistance and loans for infrastructure projects. Japan's engagement is also part of its broader Indo-Pacific strategy, aiming to balance China’s growing influence.

3. Economic Diplomacy

IMF and Financial Aid: Sri Lanka has sought financial assistance from international institutions, including the International Monetary Fund (IMF), to stabilise its economy, especially following the 2022 economic crisis marked by high inflation, fuel shortages, and debt issues. International financial institutions continue to monitor Sri Lanka's economic reforms and fiscal discipline as part of bailout agreements.

Trade and Investment: Sri Lanka’s international economic diplomacy is focused on attracting foreign direct investment (FDI), particularly in sectors like tourism, infrastructure, and manufacturing. Trade agreements with countries like India (Indo-Lanka Free Trade Agreement) and negotiations with others, including China, are crucial for its economic growth.

4. Regional Organisations

SAARC: Sri Lanka is a member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), though the organisation has been somewhat inactive due to tensions between India and Pakistan. Nevertheless, SAARC provides Sri Lanka with a platform for regional engagement.

BIMSTEC: The Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) is another regional grouping where Sri Lanka plays an active role. It connects South Asia with Southeast Asia and focuses on economic and security cooperation.

Population

Total: 6,652,212

Male: 3,242,751

Female: 3,409,461

Ethnic groups

Serb 83.3%

Hungarian 3.5%

Romani 2.1%

Bosniak 2%

other 5.7%

Languages

Serbian (official) 88.1%, Hungarian 3.4%, Bosnian 1.9%, Romani 1.4%

Religions

Orthodox 84.6%

Catholic 5%

Muslim 3.1%

Protestant 1%

Atheist 1.1%

Population distribution A fairly even distribution throughout most of the country, with urban areas attracting larger and denser populations. [1]

Political Context

Government

Government type: Parliamentary Republic

Capital: Belgrade (Beograd)

Administrative divisions: 117 municipalities and 28 cities.

Executive Branch Chief of State:

President Aleksandar VUCIC (since 31 May 2017)

Head of government: Prime Minister Milos Vucevic (since 2 May 2024)

Cabinet: Cabinet elected by the National Assembly

Elections/appointments: president directly elected by absolute majority popular vote in 2 rounds if needed for a 5-year term (eligible for a second term); election last held on 17 December 2023 (next to be held in 2028); prime minister elected by the National Assembly.

Election results:

2022: Aleksandar VUCIC reelected in first round; percent of vote - Aleksandar VUCIC (SNS) 60%, Zdravko PONOS (US) 18.9%, Milos JOVANOVIC (NADA) 6.1%, Bosko OBRADOVIC (Dveri-POKS) 4.5%

2017: Aleksandar VUCIC elected president in first round; percent of vote - Aleksandar VUCIC (SNS) 55.1%, Sasa JANKOVIC (independent) 16.4%, Luka MAKSIMOVIC (independent) 9.4%, Vuk JEREMIC (independent) 5.7%, Vojislav SESELJ (SRS) Prime Minister Ana BRNABIC reelected by the National Assembly on 5 October 2020;

Legislative Branch

Description: unicameral National Assembly or Narodna Skupstina (250 seats; members directly elected by party-list proportional representation vote in a single nationwide constituency to serve 4-year terms)

Elections: last held on 17 December 2023 (next to be held in 2027)

Election results:

Percent of vote by party/coalition:

Serbia Must not Stop 48%

SPN 24.4%

SPS-JS-ZS

6.7%

NADA 5.2%

MI-GIN 4.8%

other 8.1%

Seats by party/coalition:

Serbia Must Not Stop 128,

SPN 65,

SPS-JS-ZS 18

NADA 13

MI-GIN 13

Alliance of Vojvodina Hungarians 6 SPP-DSHV 3

Composition - men 155, women 95; percentage of women 38%

Judicial branch

Highest court: Supreme Court of Cassation, Constitutional Court.

Subordinate courts: basic courts, higher courts, appellate courts; courts of special jurisdiction include the Administrative Court, commercial courts, and misdemeanour courts [2]

Economic context

Economic overview

Real GDP (purchasing power parity)

$162.213 billion (2023 est.)

$158.214 billion (2022 est.)

$154.28 billion (2021 est.)

Real GDP growth rate

2.53% (2023 est.)

2.55% (2022 est.)

7.73% (2021 est.)

Agricultural products: Maize, wheat, sugar beets, milk, sunflower seeds, potatoes, plums, apples, barley, soybeans Industries: Automobiles, base metals, furniture, food processing, machinery, chemicals, sugar, tyres, clothes, pharmaceuticals

Industrial production growth rate: 3.62% (2023 est.) Labour force: 3.333 million Unemployment rate: 8.68% (2023 est.), 8.68% (2022 est.), 10.06% (2021 est.) [2]

International Political Context

Serbia occupies a strategic position in the Balkans and plays a significant role in regional and international politics. Its foreign policy is shaped by its historical ties, regional dynamics, and efforts to balance relationships with major powers such as the European Union (EU), Russia, China, and the United States.

1. European Union Accession EU Membership Aspirations: Serbia has been a candidate for EU membership since 2012, and accession negotiations have been ongoing. EU integration is a central goal of Serbia’s foreign policy, and the country has opened several negotiation chapters, including key areas like the Green Agenda and sustainable connectivity.

However, progress is slow, particularly due to the unresolved status of Kosovo and strained relations with some EU members, such as Croatia. The EU demands normalisation of relations with Kosovo as a precondition for further advancement in the accession process.

Kosovo Issue: The normalisation of relations with Kosovo remains the biggest challenge for Serbia’s EU accession. Kosovo declared independence from Serbia in 2008, but Serbia, backed by Russia and China, has not recognized it. The EU has mediated talks between Belgrade and Pristina, but a comprehensive agreement remains elusive. Progress on this front is essential for Serbia to move forward with EU accession.

2. Balancing Relations with Russia and the West Historical Ties with Russia:

Serbia maintains close historical, cultural, and political ties with Russia, which is one of its key allies. Russia supports Serbia on the Kosovo issue, vetoing attempts to grant Kosovo full recognition in international forums such as the United Nations. Economically, Serbia is dependent on Russian energy, particularly gas supplies.

However, Serbia has tried to maintain a neutral stance in the conflict between Russia and Ukraine, balancing its relationship with the EU and the West. Neutrality on Russia-Ukraine War: Despite EU pressure, Serbia has refused to impose sanctions on Russia following its invasion of Ukraine, citing its traditional relationship with Moscow.

This position has complicated Serbia’s EU accession process, as Brussels expects alignment with its foreign policy positions.

3. China’s Growing Influence Belt and Road Initiative: China has become a significant economic partner for Serbia, investing heavily in infrastructure projects, mining, and energy through its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). Chinese companies are involved in major projects, such as highways, railways, and the modernisation of Serbia’s steel and copper industries.

These investments have strengthened Serbia’s ties with China, providing an alternative to Western economic partnerships. Strategic Partnership: Serbia views China as a strategic partner and has deepened cooperation in technology and defence sectors.

While these ties benefit Serbia’s economy, they also raise concerns in the EU and the U.S., which see China’s growing influence in the Balkans as part of a broader geopolitical competition.

4. Relations with the United States U.S. Support for EU Integration: The United States supports Serbia’s path toward EU membership and has encouraged normalization with Kosovo. Washington has mediated some talks between Serbia and Kosovo, but Serbia’s reluctance to recognise Kosovo’s independence remains a sticking point in U.S.-Serbia relations.

Security Cooperation: Serbia cooperates with the U.S. on security matters, particularly through initiatives like the Partnership for Peace (PfP) program, which is linked to NATO. Although Serbia maintains a policy of military neutrality, it collaborates with NATO on issues such as defence reforms and regional stability, while rejecting full NATO membership due to the legacy of the 1999 NATO bombings during the Kosovo War.

5. Regional Leadership and Challenges Balkan Diplomacy: Serbia plays a leading role in the Western Balkans, seeking to position itself as a stabilizing force in the region. It has strong political and economic ties with neighbouring Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, North Macedonia, and Hungary.

However, relations with Croatia remain tense due to historical disputes and disagreements over the war in the 1990s. Serbia is also involved in initiatives such as the "Open Balkan" project, aimed at fostering economic cooperation and integration with Albania and North Macedonia.

Serbia-Kosovo Tensions: In addition to its dispute with Kosovo, Serbia faces challenges in its relationship with Bosnia and Herzegovina, particularly with the Republika Srpska entity, which has strong ties to Serbia. Serbia’s role in the Western Balkans is critical to the region’s stability, but ethnic tensions and unresolved conflicts complicate its diplomacy.

6. Economic Diplomacy

Serbia engages in economic diplomacy to attract foreign investment and strengthen trade relationships, particularly with the EU, which is Serbia’s largest trading partner. The country has benefited from EU pre-accession funds and international financial support, but it also seeks to diversify its economic ties by engaging with non-Western countries, including China, Russia, and the Gulf states.

Free Trade Agreements: Serbia has signed several free trade agreements with countries inside and outside the EU, including the Central European Free Trade Agreement (CEFTA). It also has agreements with Russia, Turkey, and members of the Eurasian Economic Union, allowing it to access multiple markets while enhancing its role as a regional trade hub.

7. Challenges to International Relations Judicial Reform and Corruption:

Serbia’s international reputation is hindered by concerns over the rule of law, corruption, and media freedom. The EU and international organizations have urged Serbia to implement judicial reforms and tackle high levels of corruption, which are seen as obstacles to EU membership and foreign investment.

Demographic and Social Issues: Serbia faces long-term challenges such as an ageing population and brain drain, with many young Serbians emigrating to the EU for better opportunities. These demographic issues, along with stagnant household incomes and high unemployment compared to the EU average, pose significant hurdles to Serbia’s economic and political stability in the global arena.

In conclusion, Serbia is navigating a complex international political landscape by balancing its EU aspirations, historical ties with Russia, growing partnership with China, and regional leadership ambitions. Its position on Kosovo, relations with Russia, and internal reforms remain pivotal to its foreign policy and international relations. [3]

Current Events

Currently, Serbia is navigating a complex political landscape influenced by both domestic and international challenges:

1. Kosovo Relations: The dialogue between Serbia and Kosovo remains one of the country's most pressing political issues. In 2024, Serbia is expected to continue implementing parts of the Ohrid Agreement, particularly the formation of the Community of Serbian Municipalities in Kosovo.

This ongoing dialogue is crucial for Serbia's European Union (EU) accession process and is heavily influenced by Western political interests, especially with upcoming elections in the EU and the U.S.

2. EU Accession: Serbia’s relationship with the EU is at a critical juncture. Despite making progress on some chapters in the EU accession talks, Serbia faces slow negotiations, particularly due to unresolved tensions with Kosovo and concerns about governance. The EU is also implementing the ETIAS system, which introduces additional travel requirements for Serbian citizens, creating frustration in the region as it further delays integration with the EU.

3. Pressure Regarding Russia: Serbia has maintained a delicate balancing act regarding its foreign policy with Russia. There is international pressure on Serbia to impose sanctions on Russia, especially as the EU and the U.S. seek foreign policy successes before their elections. Serbia's close ties with Russia, especially on energy issues, complicate this decision.

4. Domestic Politics: On the domestic front, Serbia is facing local elections in several municipalities, which could serve as a platform for opposition parties to challenge the ruling government. There are also ongoing discussions about the possibility of repeated elections in Belgrade due to the lack of a clear majority in the city assembly.

5. Environmental Concerns: Serbia's plans for exploiting lithium resources, particularly the Jadar project, have sparked significant environmental protests. Citizens are concerned about the environmental impact, leading to tension between development goals and ecological preservation. [4]

Population

Total: 55,133

Male: 27,599

Female: 27,534 (2024 est.)

Ethnic groups

African descent 92.5%

Mixed 3%

White 2.1%

East Indian 1.5%

Other 0.6%

Languages

English (official).

Religions

Protestant 75.6% (includes Anglican 16.6%, Methodist 15.8%, Pentecostal 10.8%, Baptist 5.4%, Seventh Day Adventist 5.4%)

Roman Catholic 5.9%

Hindu 1.8%

Median age

Male: 38.8 years

Female: 38.3 years

Population distribution

Population clusters are found in the small towns located on the periphery of both islands. [1]

Economic Context

Economic overview

Real GDP (purchasing power parity)

$1.438 billion (2023 est.) $1.39 billion (2022 est.) $1.258 billion (2021 est.)

Real GDP growth rate 3.43% (2023 est.) 10.52% (2022 est.) 0.48% (2021 est.)

Agricultural products: coconuts, tropical fruits, root vegetables, vegetables, eggs, pulses, tomatoes, beef, sweet potatoes, watermelons

Industries: tourism , cotton, salt, copra, clothing, footwear, beverages

Industrial production growth rate: 2.4% (2023 est.)

Public debt: 62.9% of GDP (2017 est.)

GDP - composition, by sector of origin Agriculture: 1.1% (2017 est.) Industry: 30% (2017 est.) Services: 68.9% (2017 est.) Budget: Revenues: $286 million (2020 est.)

Expenditures: $324 million (2020 est.)

Economy in Context

St. Kitts and Nevis is a high-income economy with a GDP per capita of about $18,000 in 2021, the highest among ECCU countries. Its economy is largely driven by tourism, with construction and light manufacturing also contributing. However, the country is vulnerable to natural disasters, which have caused average annual economic losses of 4.2% of GDP between 1970 and 2021.

Thanks to prudent fiscal management and revenues from the Citizenship by Investment (CBI) program (65% of GDP between 2017 and 2021), the country has maintained fiscal surpluses and reduced public debt from 135% of GDP in 2010 to below 70% since 2015.

Fiscal stimulus during the pandemic had little impact on public debt due to a surge in CBI revenue. The new government, elected in 2022, has a social agenda focused on governance improvements while maintaining fiscal caution.

The 2023 budget projects a small surplus, controlled spending, and increased capital investments. However, the sustainability of CBI revenue is a concern, and there is a need for policies to reverse tax revenue erosion and improve spending efficiency to ensure fiscal stability and resilience to natural disasters.

The economy of St. Kitts and Nevis suffered a delayed recovery due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2020, GDP contracted by 14.5%, and by 0.9% in 2021. Tourism lagged behind other ECCU and Caribbean nations due to the country’s stricter and prolonged COVID restrictions, including a complete halt to cruise ships and a month-long lockdown.

Global challenges in 2022, such as high fuel and food prices and tight financing conditions, limited the expected recovery. Growth is projected at 9% for 2022 and 4.5% in 2023, with GDP expected to reach pre-pandemic levels by the end of 2024.

Inflation rose to 3.8% by December 2022, the highest since 2011, driven by rising food and shipping costs, but it remained lower than in regional peers due to proactive government measures that helped contain food and energy prices. Fiscal measures during the pandemic, amounting to 5% of GDP, were among the strongest in the ECCU. CBI revenues helped minimize the increase in debt, keeping the debt-to-GDP ratio the lowest in the region.

In response to the cost-of-living crisis in 2022, the government increased wages and pensions by 10%, provided income support, and reduced excise taxes, totalling 4% of GDP. The country’s reliance on CBI revenue has grown, as tax revenues have continued to decline, particularly income taxes. In 2022, the government repurchased land (8% of GDP) and increased CBI due diligence fees, contributing to higher expenditures.

Despite a deficit of 3% of GDP in 2022, public wages increased and capital spending declined due to delayed projects. [2]

Political Context Government

Government type: Federal parliamentary democracy under a constitutional monarchy; a Commonwealth realm.

Capital: Basseterre

Administrative divisions: 14 parishes; Christ Church Nichola Town, Saint Anne Sandy Point, Saint George Basseterre, Saint George Gingerland, Saint James Windward, Saint John Capesterre, Saint John Figtree, Saint Mary Cayon, Saint Paul Capesterre, Saint Paul Charlestown, Saint Peter Basseterre, Saint Thomas Lowland, Saint Thomas Middle Island, Trinity Palmetto Point.

Executive Branch Chief of state: King CHARLES III (since 8 September 2022); represented by Governor General Marcella LIBURD (since 1 February 2023)

Head of government: Prime Minister Dr. Terrance DREW (since 6 August 2022)

Cabinet: Cabinet appointed by the governor general in consultation with prime minister

Elections/appointments: the monarchy is hereditary; governor general appointed by the monarch; following legislative elections, the leader of the majority party or majority coalition usually appointed prime minister by governor general; deputy prime minister appointed by governor general.

Legislative Branch Description: unicameral National Assembly (15 seats, including the attorney general; 11 members directly elected in single-seat constituencies by simple majority vote and 3 appointed by the governor general - 2 on the advice of the prime minister and the third on the advice of the opposition leader; members serve 5-year terms)

Elections: last held on 5 August 2022 (next to be held on 2027)

Election results: percent of vote by party - SKNLP 44.4%, PLP 16.1%, PAM 16.2%, CCM 12.7%, other 10.6%; seats by party - SKNLP 6, CCM 3, PLP 1, CCM 1; composition - men 11, women 5, percentage women 31.3%

Judicial Branch

Highest court: the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court (ECSC) is the superior court of the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States; the ECSC - headed by the chief justice and 4 judges - and the High Court with 18 judges; Saint Kitts and Nevis is also a member of the Caribbean Court of Justice

Political Parties

Concerned Citizens Movement or CCM Nevis Reformation Party or NRP People's Action Movement or PAM People's Labour Party or PLP Saint Kitts and Nevis Labor Party or SKNLP [3]

International Political Context

1. Diplomatic Engagements and Multilateralism United Nations (UN): St. Kitts and Nevis is an active member of the United Nations, advocating for small island developing states (SIDS) on issues such as climate change, sustainable development, and economic vulnerability. It often aligns with other Caribbean nations and SIDS to voice concerns about environmental protection, especially regarding the existential threats posed by rising sea levels and natural disasters.

Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS): As a founding member of the OECS,

St. Kitts and Nevis plays a role in regional cooperation on issues such as economic integration, regional security, and disaster preparedness. The OECS promotes collective diplomacy for its members in international forums.

Caribbean Community (CARICOM): St. Kitts and Nevis is also a member of CARICOM, participating in efforts to promote regional integration, trade, and security cooperation. CARICOM's stance on issues like reparations for slavery, regional security, and economic resilience aligns with St. Kitts and Nevis’ interests.

2. Climate Change Advocacy: St. Kitts and Nevis is a vocal advocate for climate action due to its high vulnerability to natural disasters like hurricanes. It regularly participates in global climate change conferences, such as the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), calling for stronger climate financing and measures to reduce global emissions.

The nation is often part of negotiations for climate financing, seeking funds from international institutions like the Green Climate Fund (GCF) and the Global Environment Facility (GEF) to support its adaptation and resilience efforts.

3. Economic Diplomacy and Citizenship by Investment (CBI) CBI Program: St. Kitts and Nevis is internationally known for its Citizenship by Investment (CBI) program, one of the oldest of its kind, launched in 1984. It allows foreigners to acquire citizenship in exchange for investments, contributing significantly to the nation’s economy.

However, this program has drawn international scrutiny, particularly from the European Union (EU) and the United States, due to concerns about due diligence, money laundering, and the potential misuse of passports by illicit actors.

4. Relations with Major Powers United States: St. Kitts and Nevis maintains close ties with the United States, which is one of the region’s key security partners.

Through programs like the Caribbean Basin Security Initiative (CBSI), the U.S. provides assistance in combating drug trafficking and, organized crime, and strengthening law enforcement capacities. The U.S. is also a major source of tourism and remittances for the country. China: St. Kitts and Nevis has developed a growing relationship with China, receiving Chinese investments and aid for infrastructure projects. Like many Caribbean nations, it has also benefited from China's Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).

However, balancing relations with both the U.S. and China has become increasingly important as global geopolitical tensions rise. European Union: Relations with the EU are largely shaped by trade agreements and the CBI program.

The EU has raised concerns about the lack of stringent controls in the CBI program, and St. Kitts and Nevis has responded by enhancing transparency and regulation to maintain access to European markets and banking systems.

5. Sovereignty and Foreign Aid

As a small nation, St. Kitts and Nevis is heavily reliant on foreign aid, particularly for disaster relief and recovery. The country seeks to maintain its sovereignty while engaging in diplomatic relationships that secure financial and technical assistance from larger nations and multilateral organizations like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank.

6. Commonwealth Membership: St. Kitts and Nevis is a member of the Commonwealth of Nations, which provides a platform for cooperation on governance, human rights, and development. The Commonwealth also supports the country’s initiatives on climate resilience and sustainable development.

Official Name: Co-operative Republic of Guyana

Capital: Georgetown

Population: Approximately 831,087 (2024 estimate)

Official Language: English

Currency: Guyanese Dollar (GYD)

Geographic Location: Northeastern coast of South America, bordered by Venezuela to the west, Brazil to the south and southwest, Suriname to the east, and the Atlantic Ocean to the north.

Total Area: 214,970 square kilometers

Political Context Political Context

Government Type: Guyana is a parliamentary republic in which the President of Guyana is both head of state and head of government . Executive authority is exercised by the president, who appoints and supervises the prime minister and other ministers.

The president is not directly elected; each party presenting a slate of candidates for the assembly must designate in advance a leader who will become president if that party receives the largest number of votes.

The Cabinet consists of the President, the Prime Minister, the Vice Presidents (if any are appointed), and the Ministers appointed by the President.

The Cabinet is tasked with aiding and advising the President as it relates to the general control and direction of the government.

Political Stability: In recent years, Guyana has experienced political tensions due to closely contested elections, but it remains stable with ongoing reforms for better governance.

Oil Boom: Since the discovery of significant offshore oil reserves, Guyana has become a key player in the energy sector, leading to rapid economic growth and increased geopolitical attention. Political Parties Guyana's political system is dominated by two major parties:

People's Progressive Party/Civic (PPP/C): A center-left political party, historically rooted in the Indo-Guyanese population. The party currently leads the government.

A Partnership for National Unity and Alliance for Change (APNU-AFC): A coalition between two political factions, representing centre-right and Afro-Guyanese communities. It served as the opposition after the 2020 elections. There are smaller parties, but they play a minimal role in the legislative process.

Parliamentary Structure

Guyana has a unicameral National Assembly:

National Assembly: Consists of 65 members who are elected through a mixed-member proportional representation system. Members serve five-year terms.

40 members are directly elected from regional constituencies.

25 members are elected from a national party list based on proportional representation.

Hierarchy in the State

President: Dr. Mohamed Irfaan Ali (People's Progressive Party/Civic, since August 2020)

Role: Head of state, head of government, and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The President is the most powerful political figure in Guyana.

Prime Minister: Mark Phillips (since 2020)

Role: Assists the President, manages government functions, and stands in as acting President if necessary.

Vice President: Bharrat Jagdeo (since 2020)

Role: Oversees key portfolios, particularly in the oil and energy sector.

Minister of Foreign Affairs: Hugh Todd (since 2020)

Role: Oversees Guyana's foreign relations, particularly focusing on international cooperation in the context of the growing energy industry.

Minister of Home Affairs: Robeson Benn (since 2020)

Role: Responsible for law enforcement, internal security, and public safety.

Table / Timeline of Elections

Election Type Last Held Next Scheduled Details

Presidential Election March 2, 2020 2025 The People's Progressive Party/Civic (PPP/C) won the presidency, with Irfaan Ali taking office after a contested and delayed count.

Parliamentary Election March 2, 2020 2025 The PPP/C won a majority in the National Assembly, defeating the APNU-AFC coalition. Way of Voting

Presidential and Parliamentary Elections: Guyana uses a mixed-member proportional representation system.

Voter Eligibility: Citizens aged 18 and older can vote. Voting is not mandatory, but citizens must be registered to participate in elections.

Electoral Process

Presidential Election: The leader of the party or coalition that wins the most seats in the National Assembly automatically becomes the President.

Parliamentary Election: Voters elect 40 members from geographic constituencies and 25 from party lists based on proportional representation. Seats are allocated using the Hare quota. Last Election Results

Presidential and Parliamentary Elections (March 2, 2020):

President: Dr. Mohamed Irfaan Ali (PPP/C) won the presidency following a prolonged electoral process and legal challenges.

National Assembly: The PPP/C secured 33 out of 65 seats, while the APNU-AFC coalition secured 31 seats, leaving 1 seat to a smaller party.

Key Outcome: The results marked the end of the APNU-AFC's rule and a return to power for the PPP/C after five years in opposition.

Economic Context

GDP: $21.18 billion (2024 estimate)

GDP Per Capita: $26,592 (2024 estimate, one of the highest in the region due to the oil boom)

Main Economic Sectors: Oil and gas, mining ( gold , bauxite), agriculture (sugar, rice), and forestry. The discovery of large oil fields off Guyana's coast has significantly boosted the economy.

Challenges: Despite rapid growth, challenges remain in income inequality, poverty reduction, and ensuring that oil wealth is equitably distributed.

International Political Context

Regional Role: Guyana is a member of key regional and international organizations, including:

CARICOM (Caribbean Community) - Headquarters are in Georgetown, Guyana.

UNASUR (Union of South American Nations)

OAS (Organization of American States)

Geopolitical Tensions: Ongoing territorial dispute with Venezuela over the Essequibo region, which has escalated due to the discovery of oil in the contested waters.

Foreign Policy Focus: Guyana's foreign policy increasingly centres around its oil wealth, balancing relations with regional partners, the United States , China, and multilateral organizations.

Official Name: Federative Republic of Brazil

Capital: Brasília

Population : Approximately 212 million (2025)

Official Language: Portuguese

Currency: Brazilian Real (BRL)

Geographic Location: Largest country in South America, bordered by every South American nation except Chile and Ecuador; features a vast Atlantic coastline and the Amazon rainforest.

Total Area: 8,51 million square kilometres

Major Cities: São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Brasília, Salvador, Fortaleza

Political Context

Government Type: Federal presidential constitutional republic

Legal System: Civil law system influenced by Roman and Napoleonic law

President's Role: Holds executive power, appoints ministers, directs foreign policy, commands the armed forces

Recent Developments : Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva began his third term as President in January 2023. In March 2025, former President Jair Bolsonaro was ordered to stand trial for allegedly plotting a coup in 2022 to prevent Lula from assuming office.

Political Parties

Workers' Party (PT): Center-left, currently in power under President Lula

Liberal Party (PL): Right-wing, associated with former President Jair Bolsonaro

Brazilian Democratic Movement (MDB): Centrist, historically influential

Social Democratic Party (PSDB): Center-right, significant in past administrations [1]

Political coalitions are common, and legislative fragmentation often necessitates negotiation to pass laws.

Parliamentary Structure

Chamber of Deputies: 513 members elected via proportional representation; serve four-year terms.

Federal Senate: 81 members (three per state), elected by majority vote; serve eight-year terms, with staggered elections every four years.

The National Congress holds significant legislative authority, including passing laws, amending the constitution, and overseeing the executive.

Hierarchy in the State

President: Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (since January 2023)

Vice President: Geraldo Alckmin

President of the Chamber of Deputies: Arthur Lira [2]

President of the Senate: Rodrigo Pacheco

Table of Elections

Election Type Last Held Next Scheduled Details

General Elections 2022 2026 Elects President, Congress, Governors, State MPs.

Municipal Elections 2020 2024 Elects mayors and city councillors.

Voting System: Mandatory for literate citizens aged 18-70; optional for 16-17 and those over 70.

Method: Electronic voting machines; proportional representation for legislative elections and majority vote for executive offices. Economic Context

GDP: $2.331 trillion (2024) [1]

GDP Per Capita: $11,178 (2024) [1]

Economic Model: Mixed economy with significant agriculture, mining, manufacturing, and service sectors; leading exporter of soybeans, beef, iron ore, and oil.

Recent Performance: Brazil's economy grew 3.4% in 2024, the strongest since the post-pandemic rebound, but momentum slowed more than expected in the fourth quarter as restrictive monetary policy weighed on activity, fueling bets of an earlier end to the rate hike cycle. [2]

Challenges: High public debt (76.1% of GDP in December 2024), inflationary pressures from rising commodity prices, and income inequality. [1]

International Political Context

Regional Influence: Largest economy in Latin America; founding member of MERCOSUR; plays a leadership role in regional diplomacy.

Global Role: Member of BRICS, G20, and the UN; foreign policy emphasizes South-South cooperation, multilateralism, and environmental diplomacy.

Relations with the U.S.: Major trading partner; relations stable with cooperation in climate and trade.

Relations with China: Largest trading partner, especially in commodities; strong economic ties.

Environmental Diplomacy: Committed to zero illegal deforestation by 2030 and launched an Ecological Transformation Plan to promote sustainable development and combat climate change. [3]

Digital Landscape

Internet Penetration: Approximately 86.6% of the population (187.9 million users) as of January 2024.

Social Media Usage: 144 million active users (66.3% of the population) engaging with platforms like WhatsApp, Instagram, YouTube, Facebook, and TikTok.

Mobile Connectivity: 210.3 million active cellular connections (96.9% of the population) as of January 2024.

E-Government: Robust services through platforms like " gov.br ," enabling online access to public services.

Digital Economy: Thriving e-commerce and fintech sectors; a regional leader in digital banking and mobile payments.

Cybersecurity and Regulation: Enforcement of the General Data Protection Law (LGPD); initiatives to combat misinformation and cybercrime, particularly during elections.