“Ghana, Niger and Nigeria were chosen due to their varied ecological situations and climates, while all being in West Africa,” the report titled, ' From roots to rivers: How deforestation impacts freshwater access ' said.

Across the three West African countries, more than 122 million people, about 45% of the combined population, are currently at risk from unsafe surface water, the study estimates. The number of people facing high water risk has risen by over 20 million in the past five years.

“Across all three countries, the number of people exposed to this risk is increasing. This is especially significant in urban areas where, as well as the low-quality water supplies, there is a much higher demand,” the report stated.

In Niger and Nigeria , the loss of every 1,000 hectares (ha) of forest is correlated with an average loss of 9.25 ha of surface water, according to the analysis. Nigeria alone recorded 324,000 ha of vegetation loss over the study period, roughly equivalent to an area the size of the city of Birmingham each year, the report says.

The study noted, “The drivers of deforestation in the region are complex and intersect with issues of poverty, marginalisation and climate change. Unsustainable land use practices, particularly agriculture and charcoal harvesting, are key contributors to vegetation loss, often driven by poverty and food insecurity. Inadequate land tenure and forest protection laws, as well as governance models which exclude traditional rights holders, worsen the situation further.”

In Niger, 99.5% of available surface freshwater is judged to be at risk from sedimentation and poor quality, making it unsafe to drink directly, the report finds.

The report argues that forest and water policies should be designed together, rather than in isolation. It points to evidence from Niger suggesting that reforestation can help reverse losses, in areas where 101,000 ha were restored, every additional 1,000 ha of vegetation was associated with an 11.6 ha increase in available surface water.

What the data shows

Drawing on 12 years of satellite observations (2013 - 2025) across the three countries, researchers mapped changes in vegetation, rainfall and surface water . They found a measurable relationship between forest loss and freshwater decline in Niger and Nigeria, every 1,000 hectares of forest lost corresponded to an average loss of 9.25 hectares of surface water.

In Ghana, the headline problem is water quality rather than volume, forest loss is closely associated with murkier, more polluted surface water, complicating treatment and raising health risks. “In the past 12 years, Ghana has lost 24,800 hectares of vegetation, and Nigeria has lost 27,000 hectares per year. This is a huge risk for available freshwater. Whilst short-term increases in rainfall linked to climate change may hide the real impact of this deforestation, as in Ghana, in the long term, the water cycle has been pushed off kilter, and freshwater is at risk,” the research stated.

In Niger, despite a modest net gain of 101,000 hectares of vegetation over the study period, 99.5% of the country’s available surface freshwater is now at risk of sedimentation and poor quality. However, the report states that, “over the same period, Niger has gained 101,000 hectares of vegetation through planned reforestation work. This activity has helped reclaim freshwater, reversing this alarming trend. Each 1,000 hectares of vegetation gained in Niger contributes to an 11.6-hectare increase in available freshwater.”

In Nigeria, about 85.6 million people live in areas highly vulnerable to surface water loss linked to deforestation. The country lost roughly 324,000 hectares of vegetation (about the size of Birmingham per year) between 2013 and 2025. Again, in Ghana, with an estimated 298,000 hectares of vegetation lost, the principal challenge is deteriorating surface water quality. Rivers and reservoirs are increasingly burdened by sediment and pollutants, making treatment costlier and interruptions more frequent. 

The study further showed that unsafe water drives diarrhoeal disease, strains health systems, and erodes household incomes as families pay more for treatment and alternative sources.

Other major contributors include Indonesia, DR Congo, Brazil, the USA, Canada, Russia, and China. Together, these countries represent a substantial share of global deforestation, and the impact reaches far beyond their borders.

According to Market vs Media , Russia lost more than 4.2 million hectares of tree cover, and Brazil lost more than 3.3 million hectares. However, not all losses are permanent; some result from seasonal logging and wildfires. EARTH ORG estimates that the world loses 10 million hectares of forest each year, with 96% of this destruction concentrated in tropical regions, where biodiversity is richest and carbon storage is most vital.

The global trend is worrying: tree-cover loss has nearly doubled since the early 2000s, rising from 13.4 million hectares in 2001 to 29.6 million hectares in 2024. In total, the world has lost over 517 million hectares of tree cover, about 13% of what existed at the turn of the millennium.

This includes 3.7 million hectares of tropical primary forests lost in 2023, equivalent to ten soccer fields every minute. Fires alone accounted for 6.7 million hectares of loss in 2024, almost double the figure from the previous year.

These numbers reveal stark regional contrasts. Laos’s steep loss reflects rapid agricultural expansion and mining , while Sweden’s high percentage comes mainly from industrial logging, much of which will regrow, but still represents a major disruption to carbon cycles.

Bolivia’s situation is particularly concerning: while Brazil has reduced Amazon deforestation by 36% through stricter enforcement, Bolivia is seeing deforestation rise due to soy expansion and wildfires.

The economic consequences of deforestation are also becoming clearer. Tree loss threatens commodity markets tied to palm oil, beef, and soy, while increasing scrutiny from investors who are pivoting toward ESG-aligned funds .

Carbon markets are gaining traction, but without stronger incentives for forest-rich countries like DR Congo and Laos, permanent loss could accelerate, putting global climate targets at risk.

However, the Brazilian segment of the Amazon is facing severe challenges—from rampant deforestation to the impacts of climate change—that threaten not only its environmental integrity but also the livelihoods of indigenous communities and the global climate balance.

Deforestation remains one of the most pressing issues for the Amazon. In recent years, large swaths of forest have been cleared to make way for cattle ranching, soy cultivation, and other agricultural activities.

Economic pressures and policy shifts favouring rapid development have driven these activities, resulting in significant loss of forest cover. According to a Reuters report, deforestation rates have surged as enforcement of environmental regulations has weakened, raising concerns about the long-term sustainability of this vital ecosystem.

Compounding the problem of deforestation is the prevalence of illegal logging and mining. These illicit activities also break habitats, threatening countless species.

BBC investigative reports have highlighted that unregulated logging operations, often occurring in remote areas, are difficult to monitor and control, leading to persistent environmental damage. Mining, similarly, pollutes waterways and soils, further destabilizing local ecosystems.

Climate change has emerged as a formidable threat to the Amazon. Rising global temperatures and shifting rainfall patterns have intensified drought conditions, leading to more frequent and severe wildfires.

A study published in Nature illustrates how these climatic changes are increasing the incidence of fires and exacerbating the loss of forest cover. This creates a vicious cycle that undermines the forest’s ability to sequester carbon.

These alarming trends suggest that Amazon’s capacity to act as a global carbon sink is being severely compromised. In 2024, a staggering 44.2 million acres of Brazil's Amazon rainforest burned, an area larger than the state of California.

“Now that USAID funding will no longer be available, we must ensure this doesn't lead to the growth of illicit mining, drug trafficking, or the recruitment of young people into illegal activities,” Muca stated. “The government needs to step in to replace this support, as its absence could have serious consequences,” he told the AFP.

Muca also expressed concerns about Trump’s stance on climate change, warning that deforestation in the Colombian Amazon is likely to rise. “Since President Trump has always opposed climate change policies and doesn’t believe in them, deforestation is very likely to increase,” he said.

While President Donald Trump is swiftly moving to shut down USAID , calling it a waste of money run by “lunatics,” experts caution that this decision could ultimately benefit China.

As the sun rises over the Amazonian island of Marajo, Renato Cordeiro ties his boots, grabs his knife, and heads to tap his rubber trees. Drop by drop, he collects the milky white sap, or latex, that sustains his livelihood.

The recent resurgence of the rubber tapper industry in this economically struggling northern Brazilian region has created new job opportunities for families who once thrived during the Amazon rubber boom.

A local company, Seringo, has helped Renato and over 1,500 other rubber tappers return to their craft. The company not only produces goods such as footwear but also works to protect the forest, which faces growing threats from deforestation.

While a peace deal was signed in 2022, the impact of the conflict remains evident in the region’s beekeeping industry. "The deforestation during the war has reduced bee production," Hiluf explained to the AFP, noting that the loss of trees and flowers has strained honey yields.

Shopkeepers also report challenges. "We receive only a small amount of honey, and the price has surged to 1,500 ETB for white honey,” said local shop owner Birhanu Araya. With fewer bees available, demand far exceeds supply, impacting prices and livelihoods.

According to apiculture researcher Goshu Welealeabzgi, an estimated 40 to 60% of Tigray’s bee colonies were destroyed during the war, dealing a severe blow to the region’s apiculture sector.

“The sounds of bullets may have stopped,” said Hiluf, “but the sound of misery remains, as there is still no justice.”

"Several studies, such as the one we published a few months ago in the journal Nature, show that if global warming continues and we fail to eradicate deforestation and fires, we will have reached the point of no return by 2050," he told AFP

The UN Secretary-General António Guterres has been vocal about the dire state of the planet , emphasising that we are on a "fast track" to disaster.

A 2022 report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) underscores that harmful carbon emissions have reached unprecedented levels, pushing the world closer to the 1.5 degrees Celsius warming limit agreed upon in the Paris Agreement.

Experts argue that it is "now or never" to implement drastic measures to curb emissions and transition to sustainable energy sources. This includes significant changes in infrastructure, energy production, and consumption patterns.

Andrew Norton, director of the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), stresses the need for rapid and fundamental changes to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050.

"While the pandemic will lead to a temporary dip in global greenhouse gas emissions, this must not distract from the urgent need for rapid fundamental changes in infrastructure, energy, land use and industrial systems to set us on a path to net zero emissions globally by 2050 at the latest," said Andrew Norton.

Millettia sacleuxii , a species with no common name in English, was previously identified in just three forest reserves in the Nguru and Usambara mountains. However, two of these reserves were cleared decades ago for timber and sugar plantations, leaving only a small reserve near Turiani, now surrounded by rice and sugar fields.

Bianchi’s discovery near the Mvaji River was especially notable because the trees had managed to survive despite severe deforestation in the area. The surviving trees, although stunted, produced hundreds of pods filled with thousands of seeds.

These seeds were collected and taken to a nursery managed by Bianchi and the PAMS Foundation. In the nursery, 5,500 of the 7,000 seeds germinated into healthy seedlings.

Local farmers are contributing to the deforestation project by allowing parts of their land to be used for tree cultivation, and the foundation is working to include the project in the voluntary carbon market.

Concerns remain about the genetic diversity of the seedlings, with about 1% exhibiting plant albinism, a condition that can indicate inbreeding. Bianchi hopes to collect more seeds or pollen if Millettia remains in Dunduma.

“Even though we may have saved the species, the genetics are always a worry,” Bianchi said .

The successful cultivation of Millettia sacleuxii seedlings is a big step in preventing the extinction of this rare species and supporting the ecological recovery of Tanzania’s forests.

Despite a moratorium on plantation permits imposed by President Joko Widodo in 2018, the total area of palm oil plantations in Indonesia has continued to grow. The latest land mapping survey indicates that the plantations now cover 17.3 million hectares, up from 14.32 million hectares in 2018, according to Reuters .