The 100-year-old showed his military awards and documents from his time in the Red Army. Serving under Soviet military leader Georgy Zhukov, Gspoyan carried out reconnaissance missions behind enemy lines to collect intelligence. During the Battle of Berlin, he sustained serious injuries from shell fragments to his back.

Doctors removed two fragments but left two near his spine due to the risk of damaging nerve endings. He marked Victory Day in the hospital.

After the war, Gspoyan remained in the military until 1951. His service earned him several honours, including the Order of the Patriotic War II degree, the Medal "For Bravery", and personal recognition from Joseph Stalin for his role in the Battle of Berlin.

Gspoyan is now the last living veteran of the 89th Taman Division. On May 9, 2025, marking the 80th anniversary of Victory, Russian President Vladimir Putin personally congratulated Armenian veterans after the parade on Red Square.

At the same time, some reports cited by the outlet Borkinna have claimed that more than 100 young people were allegedly arrested in connection with listening to the new music. Additional allegations suggest that state media may have avoided airing the songs and that a planned press event was cancelled shortly before release. These developments have led some diaspora groups and activists to raise concerns online about freedom of expression, while others frame the moment as part of a broader conversation about the role of art in public discourse.

A full timeline of winners from the tournament’s inception in Uruguay to Argentina’s triumph in 2022 shows that global football has rarely been truly global when it comes to champions.

Instead, a small group of nations has controlled the game’s biggest prize for nearly a century.

The first World Cup, held in Uruguay in 1930, set the tone. The hosts won it, beating Argentina 4–2 in the final, according to FIFA’s official historical records.

Europe quickly responded. Italy claimed back-to-back titles in 1934 and 1938 under the shadow of a politically charged era, before the competition was halted entirely in 1942 and 1946 due to World War II.

When the tournament resumed in 1950, Uruguay stunned Brazil in Rio de Janeiro in what remains one of football’s most famous upsets, often referred to as the “Maracanazo”.

From there, the modern era of football dominance began to take shape.

Brazil sets the standard

No country has defined the World Cup like Brazil.

The South American giants have won five titles — 1958, 1962, 1970, 1994 and 2002 — the most in tournament history. FIFA records show Brazil is also the only nation to have appeared in every World Cup since 1930.

Their golden era, led by players such as Pelé, turned Brazil into a global symbol of attacking football, particularly with their 1970 team, widely regarded as one of the greatest ever assembled.

Europe vs South America

Despite football’s worldwide reach, World Cup winners have come almost exclusively from two continents : Europe and South America.

Germany and Italy have each won four titles, while Argentina has secured three, including their most recent victory in Qatar in 2022, where they defeated France in a dramatic final decided on penalties after a 3–3 draw.

France has lifted the trophy twice, in 1998 and 2018, while Spain joined the list in 2010 with their first and only title.

England’s lone triumph came in 1966 on home soil, beating West Germany 4–2 at Wembley, a match still debated for its controversial third goal.

In total, only eight countries have ever won the World Cup: Uruguay, Italy, Germany, Brazil, England, Argentina, France and Spain.

Moments that defined eras

Each World Cup has left behind defining moments:

With the next World Cup set to be hosted across the United States, Canada and Mexico in 2026, the question remains whether a new nation can break into football’s most exclusive club.

Nowhere is this more visible than in the revival of hanfu , traditional Han Chinese attire. In Beijing’s historic quarters, among the vermilion walls of imperial palaces and the expansive courtyards of classical gardens, young people are embracing styles rooted in dynastic history. These are not isolated performances staged for tourists, nor purely superficial gestures for social media. The attention to detail - from layered silks and embroidered patterns to carefully styled hair and accessories - reflects a deeper engagement with cultural heritage.

A decade ago, the fashion sensibilities of China’s urban youth often leaned heavily toward Parisian runways or New York streetwear. Today, those reference points are no longer dominant. Instead, a distinctly Chinese aesthetic is emerging, one that draws confidently from a civilisational past spanning millennia. Whether it was the best-selling fridge magnets modelled after Empress Dowager Xiaoduan’s phoenix crown or the operatic vocals layered over trending Douyin beats, the past is now "cool." This shift is not a rejection of global influence, but rather a rebalancing: Western trends are no longer the default benchmark, but one influence among many.

This cultural recalibration is reinforced by the digital ecosystem. Social media platforms and algorithm-driven content have accelerated the popularisation of traditional motifs, turning historical references into contemporary trends. Ancient symbols are reinterpreted through modern formats, from viral short videos to fashion collaborations, creating a feedback loop in which heritage becomes both relevant and desirable.

Time travel in Xi'an

At the same time, China’s tourism industry offers further evidence of this changing mindset. Domestic travel is increasingly centred on rediscovering and reimagining the country’s own historical and cultural assets. In cities like Xi’an, large-scale projects have transformed fragments of the past into immersive experiences. Nighttime districts inspired by the Tang Dynasty blend performance, architecture, and digital spectacle, attracting visitors not only as spectators but as participants in a stylised historical narrative.

These developments are not without complexity. Such projects often rely on significant investment and are shaped by the logic of the attention economy, raising questions about sustainability and long-term value. Yet their popularity underscores a broader point: there is a strong domestic appetite for cultural experiences rooted in Chinese history, even when mediated through modern technology and commercial frameworks.

Elsewhere, sites like Dujiangyan or the preserved homes of classical poets reveal another dimension of this trend. Here, the emphasis is less on spectacle and more on continuity - on the endurance of philosophical traditions, environmental harmony, and moral ideals. The steady flow of visitors to these locations reflects a renewed interest in the intellectual and ethical foundations of Chinese civilisation, suggesting that cultural confidence is not confined to aesthetics alone.

Confidence not fear

Importantly, this inward turn does not equate to isolation. China’s recent expansion of visa-free entry policies for numerous countries points in the opposite direction. By simplifying access for foreign visitors, the country is signalling openness and a willingness to engage. The ease with which travellers can now enter, navigate, and transact within China challenges outdated perceptions of inaccessibility.

However, this openness coexists with a more self-assured posture. The willingness to welcome outsiders is no longer accompanied by a perceived need to cater to external cultural expectations. Instead, visitors are invited to encounter China on its own terms and engage with a society that is increasingly confident in the value and appeal of its own traditions.

Taken together, these developments suggest a nuanced transformation. China is not closing itself off from the world, but it is preparing for a future in which cultural leadership is more diffuse and less centred on Western paradigms. Fashion, tourism, and everyday cultural practices are becoming vehicles for this transition, expressing a society that is rediscovering its roots while redefining its place in a changing global landscape.

In this context, the resurgence of traditional dress, the reinvention of heritage tourism, and the expansion of visa-free access all point to the same underlying reality: a country that is opening its doors wider, even as it grows more confident in what lies within them.

The article solely represents the views of Yubin Du, a journalist for Chinese broadcaster CGTN, who was based in Washington DC and London between 2012 and 2025.

Despite their very different historical paths, the two countries share an unexpected similarity: their geographic outlines appear remarkably alike when placed side by side on a map.

Yet beyond that coincidence, the stories of Yugoslavia and Iran reveal two very different political journeys shaped by revolution, empire, and regional power struggles.

Yugoslavia: A Balkan Federation born from war

Yugoslavia was created after World War I in 1918 as the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, bringing together several South Slavic territories that had previously been part of the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires. In 1929, the state officially became known as Yugoslavia, meaning “Land of the South Slavs.”

After the Second World War, the country was transformed into the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito, a communist revolutionary who led the anti-Nazi resistance movement during the war.

According to Britannica , Tito established a federation consisting of six republics, Serbia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Slovenia, Montenegro and Macedonia, along with two autonomous provinces within Serbia.

Unlike most Eastern European communist states, Yugoslavia pursued an independent path during the Cold War. Tito broke with Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in 1948, allowing Yugoslavia to operate outside the Soviet bloc while still maintaining a socialist system.

The country later became a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement, positioning itself between the Western and Soviet camps.

Yugoslavia covered roughly 255,800 square kilometres and stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Balkan interior, encompassing mountains, coastlines and fertile plains.

Iran: A state rooted in ancient civilisation

Iran’s history stretches back thousands of years, making it one of the oldest continuously inhabited political regions in the world. The country was historically known as Persia, home to powerful empires such as the Achaemenid Empire , founded by Cyrus the Great in the 6th century BCE, which once ruled territory from the Mediterranean to Central Asia.

Modern Iran began to take shape during the 20th century under the Pahlavi dynasty, which pursued rapid modernisation and centralisation of the state. In 1979, however, the Iranian Revolution transformed the country into an Islamic republic following the overthrow of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi.

The revolution, led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, reshaped Iran’s political system and its relationship with Western powers.

Today, Iran is one of the largest countries in the Middle East, covering about 1.65 million square kilometres, according to the World Bank and CIA World Factbook. Its geography includes vast deserts, major mountain ranges such as the Zagros and Alborz, and strategic access to the Persian Gulf and the Strait of Hormuz, one of the world’s most important energy shipping routes.

Although Yugoslavia and Iran share surprisingly similar outlines on a map, their physical geographies and political histories developed independently.

Yugoslavia’s borders were shaped largely by European treaties, ethnic distributions and post-war political arrangements, while Iran’s boundaries reflect centuries of imperial expansion and negotiations with neighbouring states.

Cartographers often point out that such similarities are simply the result of how natural features, coastlines and historical borders intersect over time.

The dissolution of Yugoslavia

While Iran remains a single nation-state, Yugoslavia no longer exists. After the death of Tito in 1980, economic instability and rising nationalism weakened the federation. The country ultimately collapsed during the Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s, which followed the declarations of independence by several republics.

Between 1991 and 2006, Yugoslavia gradually fragmented into the independent states known today as Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, North Macedonia, Serbia, Montenegro and Kosovo.

Colonial rule, trade networks, religion and regional cooperation all helped shape the main official languages used across Africa today. As a result, languages such as French, English, Arabic and Portuguese became official in many states, while influential African languages like Swahili, Amharic and Somali also play key national roles.

French is the official language in a large number of West and Central African countries, including Senegal, Mali, Côte d’Ivoire, Niger, Chad, Burkina Faso and the Democratic Republic of Congo.

This widespread use stems from the period when France controlled vast territories across Africa during the 19th and early 20th centuries. After independence in the 1950s and 1960s, many newly formed governments kept French as their official language to maintain administrative continuity and facilitate communication among diverse ethnic groups.

According to the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie, Africa now has more French speakers than any other region in the world, with over 160 million people using the language.

English serves as the official language in several African countries, including Kenya, Uganda, South Africa, Botswana, Zambia, Zimbabwe and Namibia.

Its presence reflects the legacy of the British Empire, which governed large parts of eastern and southern Africa until the mid-20th century. English often functions as a neutral administrative language in multilingual societies.

In countries like Kenya and Uganda, English is widely used in government, media and higher education, while local languages such as Swahili remain central to everyday communication.

Across North Africa, Arabic is the primary official language in countries such as Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco and Sudan.

Arabic spread throughout the region beginning in the 7th century with the expansion of Islamic civilisation. Over centuries, it became the dominant language of administration, religion and literature.

Today, Modern Standard Arabic is used in government and media , while regional dialects are spoken in daily life.

Portuguese remains the official language in several African countries that were once Portuguese colonies, including Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe.

In Angola and Mozambique in particular, Portuguese has evolved into a widely used national language that connects dozens of ethnic groups.

The Community of Portuguese Language Countries (CPLP) estimates that tens of millions of Africans now speak Portuguese, making it an important administrative and cultural language in southern Africa.

Despite the dominance of a handful of official languages, most Africans are multilingual, often speaking two or three languages daily, a local language, a regional lingua franca and an official administrative language.

For thousands of years, Indigenous nations lived in every region of the continent, from the forests of the Northeast to the plains, deserts, mountains, and Arctic coastlines. These were not scattered groups, but organised societies with distinct languages, governance systems, spiritual traditions, and deep connections to place.

Then came a new age of upheaval.

With European colonisation, Native communities faced centuries of displacement, forced removal, disease, violence, and assimilation policies. Entire nations were pushed from ancestral lands, while others were confined to reservations or relocated across vast distances. Despite this, Indigenous peoples endured, and Native nations remain very much alive today.

A new map from The World in Maps echoes this reality.

The image, titled Percentage of Native Americans by U.S. State, highlights where Native Americans made up the largest share of each state’s population based on 2010-era data.

The map was shared via Reddit by the account u/ImOkNotANoob , whose credit appears directly on the graphic.

It uses colour shading to show the percentage of Native Americans in each state:

According to the map, the highest proportions of Native Americans were concentrated in:

These patterns align closely with what the U.S. Census Bureau has reported historically, particularly Alaska’s position as the state with the highest share of Native people, including Alaska Native groups such as the Yupik, Iñupiat, and Aleut communities.

States like Oklahoma rank highly for reasons rooted in forced history. The relocation of tribes during the 19th century, including the Trail of Tears, reshaped Indigenous geography in lasting ways.

In the Southwest, tribal nations such as the Navajo Nation, Hopi, Zuni, and Apache communities remain central to the region’s cultural and political landscape.

The Great War resulted in the collapse of longstanding empires such as the Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman empires. Its aftermath paved the way for political upheaval and national grievances that would later fuel the Second World War.

World War II remains the deadliest conflict in human history. Estimates suggest tens of millions of people were killed, both soldiers and civilians, as the war spread across continents and fronts.

The only European countries that suffered defeat in both World War I and World War II were Germany, Hungary and Bulgaria.

Germany

Germany’s role in both wars was central and controversial. As a leading member of the Central Powers in World War I, the German Empire faced defeat in 1918. The Treaty of Versailles , which formally ended that war, imposed heavy penalties, territorial losses and reparations on Germany.

Two decades later, Germany under Adolf Hitler once again plunged Europe into conflict. The defeat of Nazi Germany in 1945 reshaped the nation completely, destroying much of its infrastructure, splitting it into occupation zones and ultimately leading to decades of division during the Cold War.

Hungary

Hungary’s story in the 20th century is inseparable from the Treaty of Trianon , signed after World War I. That peace treaty dramatically reduced Hungary’s territory and resources, provoking decades of political frustration and revisionist ambitions.

In World War II, Hungary aligned with the Axis powers, partly driven by hopes of territorial restoration. That alliance ended in defeat, occupation and further disruption to the nation’s political order.

Bulgaria

Bulgaria’s path was slightly different. Initially neutral at the start of World War II, it eventually joined the Axis powers , in part to reclaim lands lost in World War I and other regional disputes.

Even then, it was unable to change the course of the war. Following the Allied victory, Bulgaria faced political upheaval and Soviet influence in its post-war government.

Long before that, in World War I, Bulgaria capitulated after prolonged fighting and was among the first of the Central Powers to seek an armistice in 1918.

Switzerland

Switzerland’s flag is one of the most recognisable in the world: a white cross set against a red background. Unlike most national flags, however, its proportions are 1:1, making it perfectly square.

Historical records show the white cross was used by Swiss confederate troops as early as the 14th century during battles against Habsburg forces . Over time, it evolved into a unifying emblem for the Swiss Confederation.

The modern square format was formally defined in federal law in the 19th century. According to the Swiss Federal Chancellery, the cross represents faith, honour and freedom, while the red background reflects historic military banners.

Although Switzerland’s civil and merchant ensigns are rectangular for practical use at sea, the official national flag remains square.

The design is also closely associated with the International Committee of the Red Cross, which was founded in Geneva in 1863. The Red Cross emblem is effectively the inverse of the Swiss flag, adopted in tribute to its country of origin.

Vatican

The only other country with a square flag is Vatican City, the world’s smallest independent state.

Adopted on 7 June 1929, following the Lateran Treaty between the Holy See and Italy, the Vatican flag is divided vertically into two equal bands of yellow and white. Centred in the white half are the crossed keys of Saint Peter beneath the Papal Tiara.

According to the Holy See’s official documentation, the gold and silver keys symbolise spiritual and worldly authority, referencing the biblical passage in which Saint Peter is given the keys to the Kingdom of Heaven. The tiara represents the papacy.

Like Switzerland’s, the Vatican’s national flag is officially square in proportion.

The overwhelming majority of national flags are rectangular, typically using proportions such as 2:3 or 1:2. Standardised shapes allow for consistency in diplomatic settings, international institutions and global events.

Square flags are uncommon largely for practical reasons. Rectangular designs are easier to manufacture and more suited to maritime and military use, where flags must be visible in the wind .

While other flags, such as Nepal’s (which is triangular), break conventional shape rules, Switzerland and Vatican City remain the only recognised sovereign states whose official national flags are square.

The above map illustrates how the defeated nation was carved up into four occupation zones controlled by the Allied powers: the United States, the Soviet Union, Great Britain and France. Each of these zones became the foundation for the later formation of separate German states, East and West Germany, marking the ideological divide between East and West.

After Nazi Germany’s unconditional surrender in May 1945 , the victorious Allied powers agreed to divide the country into four occupation sectors to administer postwar reconstruction and to prevent any resurgence of militarism. The division was formalised at the Yalta and Potsdam Conferences in 1945.

Berlin, Germany’s capital, was similarly partitioned into four sectors despite lying entirely within the Soviet zone. This arrangement later made the city a flashpoint of Cold War tensions, culminating in the Berlin Blockade of 1948–49 and the construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961.

From occupation to Cold War division

Initially, the Allied leaders agreed that Germany would be administered jointly, with shared responsibility for reconstruction and demilitarisation. However, growing distrust between the Soviet Union and the Western Allies soon deepened political divisions.

By 1949, these divisions had hardened into two separate German states. The western zones administered by the United States, United Kingdom and France merged to form the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG), commonly known as West Germany. The Soviet zone became the German Democratic Republic (GDR), or East Germany, under communist rule.

The division was more than administrative; it symbolised the ideological struggle between communism and liberal democracy that dominated global politics throughout the Cold War.

Germany’s partition influenced European security, economics and diplomacy for decades. The Berlin Wall, erected in 1961, became the most powerful symbol of the Iron Curtain separating East and West. Its fall in 1989 paved the way for German reunification and marked a turning point in the end of the Cold War.

Even today, the legacy of occupation, from economic recovery efforts like the Marshall Plan to the cultural imprint of East and West, continues to shape Germany’s national identity.

Empire and armed expansion

Colonialism was driven not only by trade and exploration but by military force, and according to Britannica , European imperial expansion from the 15th to the 20th centuries relied heavily on armed conquest and suppression of resistance, as powers competed for territory, resources and strategic advantage.

The British Empire, at its height the largest in history, is especially prominent in global records of colonial warfare. Campaigns in India, Sudan, South Africa and Afghanistan formed part of a long series of conflicts tied to imperial consolidation. The National Army Museum describes Britain’s imperial wars as “continuous and worldwide”, reflecting the scale of its overseas holdings.

Clusters of recorded battles appear across the Indian subcontinent, where the East India Company and later the British Crown fought a succession of wars against regional rulers and resistance movements. The 1857 Indian Rebellion , often described as a turning point in British rule, marked one of the most significant uprisings against imperial authority.

France and the conquest of North Africa

French colonial expansion is particularly visible across North and West Africa. France’s invasion of Algeria in 1830 initiated decades of warfare. Britannica notes that the conquest was prolonged and marked by widespread violence, with resistance continuing well into the 19th century.

Elsewhere in West Africa, French forces undertook military campaigns to establish control over territories that would later become Senegal, Mali and Côte d’Ivoire. These conflicts laid the foundations for French West Africa, a federation that endured until the mid-20th century.

Spain and Portugal: Early empires of the Americas

Spain and Portugal were among the earliest European colonial powers. Following Christopher Columbus’s voyages in 1492, Spanish forces established control across much of Central and South America . The Spanish conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires involved decisive military campaigns that transformed the political landscape of the Americas.

Portugal’s empire stretched from Brazil to parts of Africa and Asia. According to historical accounts, Portuguese forces fought to secure trading ports and coastal territories, particularly in Angola, Mozambique and Goa.

The Netherlands and Southeast Asia

Dutch colonial warfare is most closely associated with Indonesia. The Aceh War, fought between 1873 and 1904, was one of the longest and bloodiest conflicts in the Netherlands’ colonial history. Dutch efforts to consolidate control over the Indonesian archipelago required repeated military campaigns against local rulers and resistance groups.

The concentration of battles across Africa , Asia and the Americas highlights how colonial borders and political structures were often forged in conflict. The United Nations has stated that the consequences of colonialism continue to shape economic inequality and political instability in many parts of the world.

For the first time in decades, several nations that once marched under their own flags at the Olympic Games are once again kept on the sidelines, not for sport but for politics and global conflict.

This year’s line-up of excluded nations harks back to the earliest modern Games. In 1920, five countries, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey, were barred from competing in the Antwerp Olympics for their roles in the First World War.

Germany endured extended exclusion through the 1924 and 1948 Games, while more recent exclusions reflect very different world challenges, from state-sponsored doping scandals to sanctions tied to military aggression.

Today, Russia and Belarus find themselves at the centre of this ongoing tradition of Olympic discipline.

Both nations have been banned from competing as national teams in the current Olympic cycle following the 2022 invasion of Ukraine, a move the International Olympic Committee (IOC) says conflicts with the foundational Olympic goal of promoting peace through sport.

While select athletes from these countries may qualify as individual neutral competitors, their nations will not be represented in the official parade of flags or team competitions.

What this really means is that the Games, even in 2026, remain as much a reflection of global politics as they are a celebration of athletic achievement, with exclusion once again telling as much of the story as the medals themselves.

The smock, handwoven from locally spun cotton, originates from Northern Ghana, where Mahama comes from, was misidentified by some Zambians as a blouse, sparking online commentary and mockery.

However, the smock carries deep cultural and historical significance that extends beyond fashion.

The announcement was made on Tuesday, February 3, by Mahama Ayariga, the Majority Leader in Parliament. Speaking at a media briefing, said, “We are changing the name of our airport from Kotoka International Airport to Accra International Airport. A bill will be brought by the Minister for Transport to facilitate this change.”

The airport was initially established in 1946 as a military facility operated by the British Royal Air Force following World War II. It was later handed over to civilian authorities. In 1956, under the leadership of Ghana’s first President, Dr Kwame Nkrumah, the facility underwent structural development to meet international air travel standards.

By 1958, it was officially inaugurated as Accra International Airport.

The name was changed in 1969 to Kotoka International Airport in memory of Lt. General E.K. Kotoka, a key figure in the 1966 coup that removed Nkrumah from office. General Kotoka was later killed in 1967 during a failed coup attempt at a location now part of the airport’s forecourt.

The renaming proposal reflects ongoing calls from civil society and public figures who argue that naming a national airport after a military coup leader is contrary to Ghana’s democratic values. Among these voices is Samia Nkrumah, daughter of the late Nkrumah, who has consistently advocated for restoring the airport’s original name.

Ayariga affirmed the legislative nature of the process, stating, “Such decisions must be grounded in law and guided by the will of the people.”

The event was attended by senior officials and diplomats, including Peru’s Minister of Culture Alfredo Luna and Yi Yuanqing, a business representative from the Chinese Embassy. Authorities described the celebration as a symbol of shared heritage between two ancient civilisations and an opportunity to strengthen people-to-people links through culture.

However, the festivities unfolded against the backdrop of mounting scrutiny over President José Jeri’s unregistered private meetings with Chinese businessman Zhihua Yang. The meetings are currently under prosecutorial investigation amid allegations of possible influence-peddling, which the president has denied, dismissing the claims as politically motivated. Government officials said the administration is cooperating with authorities as the inquiry continues ahead of Peru’s upcoming elections .

The Holy Bible

Author: Various authors over centuries

Estimated copies sold: 5 billion

The Bible is the most widely distributed book in human history, according to Guinness World Records. Written over many centuries, it forms the foundation of Christianity and has shaped laws, ethics, art, and culture across the world. Its spread was accelerated by early printing presses, missionary work, and translation into thousands of languages.

The Quran

Author: Revealed to Prophet Muhammad

Estimated copies sold: 1.5 billion

The Quran is Islam ’s holy book and a central guide for Muslims worldwide. While printed copies number in the billions, its influence goes beyond sales. It is memorised, recited daily, and treated as a sacred text.

Quotations from Chairman Mao (The Little Red Book)

Author: Mao Zedong

Estimated copies sold: 1 billion

This book contains sayings and political ideas from China’s former leader, Mao Zedong. It became one of the most distributed books in history during China’s Cultural Revolution , when citizens were encouraged, and often required, to own it. Its high sales reflect political influence rather than traditional readership demand.

Xinhua Dictionary

Author: Institute of Linguistics, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences

Estimated copies sold: 600 million

The Xinhua Dictionary is China’s official dictionary and one of the most used reference books in the world. It is widely taught in schools and updated regularly. Its massive distribution reflects China’s population size and strong focus on standardised education.

Bhagavad Gita

Author: Traditionally attributed to Veda Vyasa

Estimated copies sold: 503 million

The Bhagavad Gita is a sacred Hindu text that explores duty, morality, and purpose through a dialogue between Prince Arjuna and the god Krishna. Over centuries, it has influenced spiritual thought in India and beyond. James Clear often writes about timeless ideas, and the Gita is a classic example of ideas that remain relevant across generations.

Don Quixote

Author: Miguel de Cervantes

Estimated copies sold: 500 million

Often called the first modern novel, Don Quixote tells the story of a man who believes he is a knight in a changing world. First published in the 1600s, it remains popular because of its humour, humanity, and commentary on dreams versus reality.

A Tale of Two Cities

Author: Charles Dickens

Estimated copies sold: 200 million

Set during the French Revolution , this novel explores sacrifice, injustice, and redemption. Its famous opening line and emotional storytelling have kept it in school curricula and public reading lists for over a century.

Among the most striking elements is an owl sculpture at the entrance, a Zapotec symbol linked to night and death, whose beak partially covers a human face believed to represent the tomb’s occupant. Inside, mural paintings rendered in red, blue, green, white and ochre are now being studied by specialists from Mexico’s National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH).

President Claudia Sheinbaum described the find as the country’s most significant archaeological discovery in a decade, highlighting its exceptional preservation and the cultural and symbolic information it provides about Zapotec society .

Towering over infantry and cavalry alike, war elephants were deployed for their physical power, psychological impact, and symbolic authority.

These animals played a strategic role in military campaigns for centuries, influencing how wars were fought and how empires expanded.

While there were numerous small-scale and experimental deployments following their introduction around 1100 BC, the presence of war elephants gradually became more structured and strategic, particularly in the Indian subcontinent. There, elephants were trained to charge enemy lines, carry archers or commanders, and instil fear through sheer size and noise.

As military contact increased between civilisations, the practice spread westward. Persian armies were among the first outside South Asia to integrate elephants into organised warfare. This expansion culminated in one of the most significant military encounters of antiquity.

Gaugamela: Europe ’s first encounter with war elephants

The first well-documented conflict involving Europeans and war elephants occurred at the Battle of Gaugamela in October 331 BC. Fought in what is now northern Iraq, the battle pitted Alexander the Great against the Persian king Darius III. Although elephants did not determine the outcome, their presence marked a turning point in European military consciousness.

Ancient sources suggest that the animals caused enough concern for Alexander to take religious precautions before the battle. While his Macedonian army ultimately prevailed, the encounter exposed Greek forces to a form of warfare they had never previously faced, prompting future Hellenistic rulers to adopt elephants themselves.

Following Alexander’s campaigns, war elephants became a prized military asset among his successors. The Seleucid Empire fielded large numbers of elephants sourced from India, while Ptolemaic Egypt developed its own elephant corps.

In the western Mediterranean, Carthage famously employed elephants during the Punic Wars, most notably under Hannibal , whose march across the Alps remains one of the most iconic episodes in military history.

Despite their dramatic impact, elephants were never universally effective. They required extensive training, were difficult to control under stress, and could panic if injured or frightened, sometimes turning against their own troops.

Decline and legacy

By the late classical and early medieval periods, changes in military technology and tactics reduced the battlefield value of war elephants. The rise of disciplined infantry formations, projectile weapons, and eventually firearms made them increasingly vulnerable.

Over time, their role shifted away from frontline combat and into ceremonial, logistical, or symbolic uses.

Still, war elephants shaped ancient military strategy, altered the psychology of warfare, and left a lasting imprint on historical memory.

A recently studied hand stencil from Liang Metanduno cave on Muna Island, southeast of Sulawesi, has been dated to at least 67,800 years ago. If confirmed, it would be the oldest known example of cave art anywhere in the world .

The stencil is part of a wider network of rock art sites across Muna and neighbouring Buton Island. While the pigment is heavily faded, researchers identified clear traces of fingers and palm, indicating deliberate human marking rather than natural staining.

Taken together, the cave paintings suggest early humans in the region were not only capable seafarers, but also abstract thinkers — using art to express identity, belief or social meaning long before written history began.

The findings strengthen evidence that early humans in Southeast Asia were producing symbolic art tens of thousands of years earlier than once believed, challenging long-held views that such behaviour first emerged in Europe.

How it was dated

To establish its age, scientists analysed mineral deposits that formed over the artwork using uranium-series dating. This method provides a minimum age, meaning the painting could be significantly older than the figure reported.

The discoveries also carry implications for human migration. Sulawesi lies along the route early humans likely took as they moved from mainland Asia towards Australia via the ancient Sahul landmass. The presence of advanced art supports the idea that these populations had complex cognitive abilities before reaching Australia.

Some researchers caution that questions remain over which human species created the artworks, noting that Denisovans and early Homo sapiens may have shared similar artistic capacities. Others argue the dating methods are robust and consistent across multiple sites.

Here’s what that story looks like:

Louisiana Purchase (1803): The deal that doubled a nation

The biggest land deal in U.S. history began in the wake of Napoleon’s setbacks in Europe. President Thomas Jefferson agreed to pay France $15 million for the vast territory of Louisiana in 1803, nearly doubling the size of the young republic and laying the groundwork for expansion across the continent. The purchase, which stretched from the Mississippi River to the Rocky Mountains, later became all or part of 15 modern states.

Florida Purchase Treaty (1819)

Just over a decade later, the United States turned its attention south. Through the Adams-Onís Treaty , Spain ceded Florida to the U.S., and the government agreed to assume roughly $5 million in claims by American citizens against Spain. That deal didn’t just secure strategic territory; it also clarified borders and eased tensions between two former colonial powers.

Mexican Cession (1848)

The Mexican-American War concluded with the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848. Mexico ceded an enormous swath of territory, including present-day California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona and parts of Colorado, Wyoming and New Mexico. While not a “purchase” in the classic sense, the U.S. paid $15 million and assumed certain claims as part of the deal, and its scale made it one of the biggest expansions in history.

Gadsden Purchase (1854)

Looking to build a southern transcontinental railroad and settle lingering border disputes with Mexico, U.S. diplomats negotiated the 1854 Gadsden Purchase. For $10 million, the United States acquired nearly 30,000 square miles of what is now southern Arizona and New Mexico, finalising the contiguous continental border.

Alaska Purchase (1867)

Perhaps the most infamous bargain was the Alaska Purchase . In 1867, the U.S. bought more than half a million square miles from Russia for just $7.2 million, about two cents per acre. Critics at the time mocked it as “Seward’s Folly,” but the territory proved rich in resources and strategic value, eventually becoming the 49th state.

U.S. Virgin Islands (1917)

Not all American purchases were on the mainland. In 1917, during World War I, the United States bought the Danish West Indies , now the U.S. Virgin Islands, from Denmark for $25 million in gold. The acquisition secured a key naval position in the Caribbean and remains the most recent major land purchase for the country.

Paraguay’s government insists it is prepared to adhere to environmental standards agreed with the European Union as part of the broader Mercosur–EU trade framework. Minister Juan José Vidal emphasised that ongoing efforts to improve forest governance, agricultural practices and land management put Paraguay in a good position to comply with obligations tied to market access. Officials said compliance would enhance Paraguayan products’ competitiveness in the EU while aligning with sustainability goals. Environmental groups and industry stakeholders have welcomed the commitment but underline that effective implementation and monitoring will be key. The government argues that meeting these standards will open new opportunities for Paraguay within the global trade system.

Senacsa highlights boost for Paraguayan beef after Mercosur‑EU agreement

Paraguay’s National Animal Health and Quality Service (Senacsa) has reported a significant positive impact on the country’s beef sector following the Mercosur–European Union trade agreement, with expanded access to EU markets and a clearer framework for sanitary and phytosanitary standards. According to Senacsa officials, Paraguayan producers are now better positioned to meet stringent import requirements, which could increase export volumes and strengthen the sector’s international competitiveness. The agency emphasised improvements in traceability systems, animal health protocols and certification processes as key factors that have helped beef exporters capitalise on new opportunities. Industry representatives said that the agreement not only opens doors to higher‑value markets but also incentivises investment in quality improvements across the value chain. The development comes at a time when Paraguay is seeking to diversify its export destinations and enhance agricultural productivity while maintaining high animal health standards.

Paraguay marks 110 years since Chaco War combatants’ resolve

Paraguay commemorated the 110th anniversary of the entry of Chaco War veteran Francisco “Chico” López Soler into combat, celebrating his legacy and that of other ex-combatants in the 1932–35 conflict with Bolivia. Government officials and veterans’ groups held ceremonies in Asunción, highlighting national pride, remembrance and the sacrifices of those who fought in one of Paraguay’s defining historical episodes. The Chaco War, a bitter struggle over control of the Gran Chaco region, remains a touchstone of national identity. The anniversary events included tributes, military honours and reflections on peace and regional cooperation today. Organisers emphasised the importance of preserving historical memory for future generations.

Mercosur looks to Asian partners amid trade diversification efforts

Paraguayan Foreign Minister Julio César Arriola said Mercosur bloc nations are increasingly eyeing Asian markets as part of a strategic effort to diversify trade and reduce dependency on traditional partners. Arriola highlighted growing interest from countries such as China, Japan and South Korea, noting that deepening economic ties with Asia could boost exports of agricultural commodities, industrial goods and services. He stressed that Mercosur’s internal reforms and external engagement strategies are designed to enhance competitiveness in fast-growing economies. The push reflects broader geopolitical and economic shifts as Latin American exporters adapt to evolving global demand patterns. Business leaders called for investment in logistics and value-added production to fully leverage new opportunities.

National museum uses chairs to tell Paraguay’s social history

A unique exhibit at Paraguay’s Museo del Barro uses chairs as storytelling devices to explore the country’s social and cultural history, from colonial times to the modern era. Each chair represents a different historical period, social group or lived experience from indigenous communities and rural workers to urban families and artists. Curators said the installation invites visitors to “sit with history,” offering insights into how everyday objects reflect identity, power and societal change. The museum’s approach blends material culture with narrative art, making history tangible and accessible. Local educators praised the exhibit as a valuable tool for learning and community engagement.

On 3 January 2026, U.S. forces launched what the White House dubbed Operation Absolute Resolve, an air and special forces mission in Venezuela that resulted in the capture and removal of President Nicolás Maduro from power.

The South American leader has since been flown to the United States to face federal charges related to alleged narco-terrorism and weapons offences. He is set to appear in a Manhattan court on Monday, January 5.

This marks the most forceful direct intervention by the United States in the region since the late 20th century, and it has triggered immediate global reaction.

Leaders across Latin America , Europe and beyond have condemned the operation as a violation of international law and a threat to regional sovereignty, while some U.S. lawmakers argue the White House bypassed Congress in authorising the action.

Since World War II, the U.S. has intervened in multiple South American countries. Venezuela now stands alongside Peru (1963, 1990), Bolivia (1971, 2019), Chile (1964, 1973), Paraguay (1954, 1989), Argentina (1976), Uruguay (1973), and Brazil (1964) in episodes where U.S. military pressure, support or direct action shaped national politics.

Those earlier episodes include Cold War-era coups and covert operations, often linked with U.S. fears of Soviet influence and domestic leftist movements.

One notorious example was Operation Condor, a coordinated campaign in the 1970s by several South American dictatorships (Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia, Brazil), which received tacit U.S. backing and targeted dissidents across borders.

The Trump administration has framed its 2026 intervention as part of a broader campaign against drug trafficking and threats to U.S. security, building on months of strikes against drug smuggling infrastructure and naval blockades.

Maduro was removed from power and flown out of the country to face drug trafficking and narco-terrorism charges led by U.S. Attorney General Pam Bondi. The U.S. government said Maduro was the head of a transnational criminal enterprise.

“We’re going to run the country until such time as we can do a safe, proper, and judicious transition,” Trump said. “We can't take a chance that somebody else takes over Venezuela.”

In the hours that followed, Venezuela’s Supreme Tribunal of Justice appointed Vice President Delcy Rodríguez as interim president. Much of the existing government structure remained in place.

Years of pressure on Venezuela

The operation did not come out of nowhere. It marked a major moment in a long U.S. effort to shape Venezuela’s political future.

In 2019, the Trump administration backed opposition leader Juan Guaidó as interim president and imposed heavy economic sanctions as part of what it called a “maximum pressure” strategy.

By late 2025, reports said the CIA had been authorised to carry out covert operations inside Venezuela, pointing to a sharper push to remove Maduro. The U.S. has also been linked to the failed 2002 coup against then-President Hugo Chávez, though Washington has disputed the extent of its involvement.

Venezuela’s oil wealth has remained a key issue. The country holds an estimated 17% of global oil reserves. Trump has said U.S. companies would play a central role in rebuilding the energy sector.

“We’re going to have our very large United States oil companies… go in, spend billions of dollars, fix the badly broken infrastructure… and start making money for the country,” he said.

A familiar pattern

Maduro’s removal places Venezuela among many countries where the U.S. has pursued regime change.

Since 1947, the United States has been involved in about 100 regime-change operations, according to estimates by scholar Jeffrey Sachs. These efforts have ranged from open military action to covert political and economic interference, often targeting governments seen as hostile to U.S. interests.

Early interventions before the Cold War

U.S. involvement in regime change began long before modern geopolitics.

In 1893, American-backed groups overthrew Queen Liliʻuokalani in Hawaii, a move that later led to U.S. annexation. From 1912 to 1933, U.S. forces occupied Nicaragua and took control of key parts of the government and economy .

During the “Banana Wars” between 1903 and 1925, Honduras experienced repeated U.S. military interventions that helped install or protect governments friendly to American business interests.

World War II and occupation politics

During World War II, U.S. forces played a direct role in defeating fascist governments in Germany, Italy, and Japan.

After the war, American-led occupations reshaped political systems in South Korea from 1945 to 1948 and in Austria from 1945 to 1955.

Cold War coups and covert actions

The Cold War era saw a sharp rise in secret operations.

In Iran in 1953, Operation Ajax removed Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh and restored the Shah. A year later in Guatemala, the CIA’s Operation PBSuccess overthrew elected President Jacobo Árbenz.

In 1963, the U.S. supported a coup against South Vietnam’s President Ngo Dinh Diem, who was later assassinated. In Chile, U.S.-backed economic pressure helped set the stage for the 1973 coup that removed President Salvador Allende and brought Augusto Pinochet to power.

In 1989, the U.S. invaded Panama under Operation Just Cause and removed President Manuel Noriega.

Post-9/11 

After the 11 September attacks, U.S. military action took on new urgency.

In 2001, the U.S. invaded Afghanistan to dismantle Al-Qaeda and remove the Taliban. Two years later, it led a coalition into Iraq, overthrowing Saddam Hussein over claims of weapons of mass destruction.

In 2004, the U.S. played a direct role in the departure of Haiti’s President Jean-Bertrand Aristide, who later said he was forced out. In Libya in 2011, U.S. and NATO airpower backed rebels who overthrew and killed Muammar Gaddafi.

That same year in Egypt, the U.S. withdrew support for President Hosni Mubarak during mass protests and encouraged a political transition.

The above map of Italy in 1850, before unification, captures a moment when political fragmentation defined everyday life; from laws and currencies to armies and identities.

In the mid-19th century, Italy did not exist as a single state. The Kingdom of Sardinia, centred on Turin and ruled by the House of Savoy, controlled much of the northwest and would later lead the unification movement. To the northeast, Lombardy–Venetia was under Austrian rule, reflecting the strong influence of the Habsburg Empire in Italian affairs.

Central Italy was dominated by the Papal States, governed directly by the Catholic Church from Rome, while Tuscany, Parma, and Modena functioned as independent duchies. In the south, the powerful Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, with Naples as its capital, ruled over southern Italy and Sicily.

After the Congress of Vienna in 1815 , European powers deliberately restored and reinforced small states to prevent the rise of strong nationalist movements. According to Britannica , this system preserved foreign influence, particularly Austrian control, while suppressing liberal and nationalist ambitions across the peninsula.

Yet by 1850, pressure for change was growing. Economic disparities, censorship , and foreign domination fueled resentment, especially among intellectuals and the emerging middle class. Secret societies, revolutionary groups, and figures such as Giuseppe Mazzini promoted the idea of a single Italian nation bound by shared language and culture.

The map also highlights the strategic importance of Rome, which remained outside the future Kingdom of Italy until 1870 due to papal protection by French troops. Its eventual annexation completed unification, making Rome the capital and ending centuries of papal territorial rule.

Italy’s unification between 1861 and 1870 transformed Europe’s political balance, creating a new nation-state at a time when nationalism was reshaping the continent.

Across much of Southern, Central and Eastern Europe , Saturday is derived from “Shabbat”, the Jewish day of rest. Languages such as Italian (sabato), Spanish (sábado), Greek (Savvato) and Russian (subbota) trace their roots to the Hebrew word Shabbat, reflecting early Jewish influence and the spread of Christianity through the Roman and Byzantine worlds.

In English-speaking countries and parts of Western Europe, Saturday instead comes from Latin, meaning the “Day of Saturn,” the Roman god associated with time, wealth and agriculture. The Romans named days after celestial bodies and gods, a system that survives today in English. “Saturday” remains the only weekday in English still named after a Roman deity.

Further north, Scandinavian countries offer a different story. In Swedish (lördag) and related languages, Saturday translates to “bath day.” Historically, this was the day people washed before Sunday worship, linking hygiene with social and religious preparation.

In parts of Finland and the Baltic region, the word is associated with the “sixth day,” reflecting biblical counting traditions rather than naming gods or rituals. Meanwhile, Turkey’s word for Saturday, cumartesi, comes from Arabic and means “after the gathering,” referring to Friday prayers and the day that follows communal worship.

In Portugal, the term sábado is often linked historically to the idea of a “meeting of friends,” tied to rest and social connection rather than religion alone, highlighting how language adapts to local customs over time.

These remarks coincided with reports of targeted immigration enforcement operations that were focusing on the Somali community in Minnesota. Nearly 58% of Somalis in Minnesota were born in the United States, and 87% of the foreign-born population are naturalised U.S. citizens, according to reports .

The notion that Somalis contribute nothing is strongly refuted by those who see their efforts on the ground, both in their homeland and abroad. 

U.S. Representative Ilhan Omar, who is Somali-born and immigrated to the U.S. at age 12, responded to the "vile" remarks by highlighting that Somali Americans make considerable contributions to the U.S. and are actively working to improve the country. 

Ahmed Soliman, a Horn of Africa researcher, affirmed this view, noting that the Somali population, both in the diaspora and within Somalia, has made "huge contributions to their communities".

In the capital city of Mogadishu, individuals and civil society organisations are stepping into the dangerous gaps left by decades of conflict. 

Somalia has faced ongoing instability since the 1991 fall of the Siad Barre regime, leading to civil conflict and the rise of extremist groups like al-Shabab. 

This has displaced millions, with an estimated 10 million Somalis living in neighbouring countries and nearly 2 million in the global diaspora — about 10% of whom are in North America.

Dr Abdulkadir Abdirahman Adan, a dentist and founder of the country's sole free ambulance service, said Trump “doesn’t know much about Somalis.”

“In every nation, there is some bad people… but not all of them. Somalis, I do believe there are very good people, in generosity, helping others,” he added. 

Adan’s ambulance service is a vital lifeline in a city that regularly endures terror attacks by al-Shabab. He and his staff often risk their lives, arriving at blast scenes shortly after explosions, believing that every life has an equal value. 

With an estimated population of 19.1 million residing within its borders, 10 million in neighbouring countries, and nearly 2 million in the global diaspora, Somalia is far from being a country lacking heritage. 

Despite challenges from climate change and international aid cuts, Somalia’s economic growth of 4.1% in 2024 and projected 3.3% in 2025 is higher than that of the US, which managed 2.8% in 2024 and a projected 2.0% in 2025.

The Horn of Africa nation is recognised as one of the oldest trading nations in the world, with a history dating back many centuries. 

Somalia boasts the longest coastline on continental Africa, touching the Indian Ocean, the Red Sea, and bordering the Gulf of Aden. 

Historically, Somalia houses some of the wealthiest trading ports, including the Mogadishu port, which is now over a thousand years old, along with notable ports such as Kismayo, Berbera, and Zeila.

Somali culture also boasts deep intellectual roots, earning the nation the title “Nation of Poets”. This widespread practice of poetry originated from the nomadic nature of the Somali tradition, where lyrical words were easier for messengers to remember when sending communications.

Somalia played a critical role in early animal domestication, pioneering the domestication of the camel between the third and second millennia BC. This practice, crucial for nomadic life, subsequently spread throughout North Africa and into ancient Egypt. 

Today, Somalia maintains this legacy, possessing the largest population of camels of any single country, with a growing population estimated at 14 million.

The county’s economy is heavily reliant on livestock, which accounts for upwards of 40% of the GDP and 50% of the country’s export earnings. Chief exports include camels and other livestock, hides, fish, frankincense, and a variety of fruits and vegetables.

While the country faces significant challenges, including decades of clan-based conflict and the ongoing fight against al-Shabab, it is actively supported by international partners, such as the  World Bank , which is engaged in initiatives aimed at creating jobs, providing social protection, and enhancing climate resilience, benefiting over 738,000 Somalis.

In a speech delivered on Thanksgiving Day, Trump announced he would seek a “permanent pause” on immigration from what he called “third-world countries.”

This rhetoric echoes a now well-known moment in 2018 when Trump reportedly called Haiti and several African nations “shithole countries.” Trump’s worldview and his language have hardly shifted.

The U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services later clarified that Trump’s new reference targets a group of 19 countries, including Afghanistan, Eritrea, Haiti, Iran, Myanmar, Somalia, Sudan, Venezuela, Sierra Leone, Togo, and others previously listed under a travel ban.

Where “Third World” actually comes from

In 1952, French demographer Alfred Sauvy coined the term “Third World.” Contrary to modern usage, it had nothing to do with development or poverty. Instead, Sauvy was drawing an analogy to pre-Revolutionary France:

During the Cold War , these became metaphors for:

Over time, however, the meaning shifted incorrectly to denote poor or “backward” nations. Today, it functions mainly as a political shorthand, often deployed for emotional effect rather than accuracy.

From language to policy : Fear as a strategy

Trump’s use of vague terms is not incidental; it is strategic. By refusing to clearly define which countries qualify as “third world,” he creates an atmosphere of uncertainty.

This tactic parallels the proposed $100,000 fee for H-1B visas earlier this year, a sweeping announcement that caused panic among thousands of legal U.S. residents before details were even released.

The impact is real: cancelled travel plans, families afraid to leave the U.S., and long visa queues in cities from Accra to Nairobi.

Terms like “third world” shape global aid, security cooperation, and public perception. They inform who is seen as a threat and who is seen as worthy.

For millions of Africans seeking educational or professional opportunities abroad, the implications are personal and immediate.

Should the media repeat the phrase at all?

A critical question arises: When reporting Trump’s speeches, should the media repeat his terminology verbatim?

Repeating language that is vague, outdated, or prejudicial can unintentionally reinforce harmful narratives.

While Trump’s comments followed a horrific killing in Washington, such incidents have become political tools. Whether Trump’s new “third world” designation becomes a formal list remains unclear. But the ambiguity alone shifts behaviour and fuels anxiety.

Trump’s language isn’t just rhetoric. It powerfully influences global mobility, international relationships, and how billions of people understand their place in the world.

Click here to watch our previous episodes

World Reframed is produced in London by Global South World, part of the Impactum Group. Its editors are Duncan Hooper and Ismail Akwei.

ISSN 2978-4891

The bold emblem, an AK-47 crossed with a hoe, set over an open book, often sparks curiosity, debate, and fascination. However, the story behind it is deeply tied to the country’s history, its struggle for liberation, and the turbulent security challenges that still shape the region today.

Mozambique adopted its flag in 1983, less than a decade after gaining independence from Portugal. The AK-47 symbolises the armed resistance led by FRELIMO (Front for the Liberation of Mozambique), which fought a 10-year guerrilla war using widely available Soviet-designed Kalashnikov rifles.

The rifle represents “defence and vigilance,” the hoe symbolises agriculture, and the book stands for education, together forming a vision of a nation that must protect itself while rebuilding.

Globally, the AK-47 is notorious for appearing in the flags and emblems of revolutionary movements, but in terms of national flags, Mozambique is the only country where the weapon remains officially included.

The Kalashnikov’s ubiquity in liberation struggles across Africa and Asia is well-documented, with the small-arms trade monitoring group Small Arms Survey noting that the AK-47 became a political and cultural icon precisely because of its durability, affordability, and availability.

While many Mozambicans see the rifle as a powerful reminder of hard-won freedom, others argue it sends the wrong message in an era where countries are under pressure to curb conflict and disarm militias.

Calls to remove the AK-47 have surfaced repeatedly, particularly from civil society groups who say the symbol conflicts with modern priorities such as peacebuilding and economic development.

However, attempts to redesign the flag have failed. In 2005, a parliamentary committee proposed a new design without the weapon. Yet the ruling party maintained that removing the rifle would erase an essential part of the nation’s identity and history.

The symbolism of arms on national symbols has gained renewed attention as Mozambique continues to battle insurgency in its northern Cabo Delgado region. The conflict, driven by extremist groups aligned with the Islamic State, has displaced over a million people since 2017.

From the North Atlantic’s isolation to Central Europe’s dense multilingual corridors, the Germanic languages continue to evolve in ways that mirror Europe’s ongoing transformations.

The languages are traditionally divided into two major branches: North Germanic, which is spoken largely in Scandinavia , and West Germanic, which includes English, German, Dutch, Frisian, and Scots.

On the map above, Icelandic and Faroese dominate the North Atlantic fringes, Norwegian, Danish, and Swedish sweep across Scandinavia, and German, Dutch, Frisian, Scots, and English cover much of Western and Central Europe.

According to Encyclopaedia Britannica , the Germanic language family is descended from a common Proto-Germanic ancestor emerging around the mid–1st millennium BCE.

Additionally, the world’s most widely spoken Germanic language, English, owes its global dominance to centuries of colonisation and international trade. There are over 1.4 billion English learners and speakers globally, making it a defining linguistic force in diplomacy, science, and technology.

Meanwhile, German remains the most widely spoken native language within the European Union, a fact with cultural and political implications amid ongoing debates over EU unity and economic leadership.

The North Germanic languages, though spoken by smaller populations, have some of the highest literacy rates and strongest preservation efforts in the world . Icelandic, for instance, deliberately resists borrowing from other languages, implementing unique Icelandic terms for modern concepts.

Peninsular Malaysia currently experiences sunrise at around 7 a.m., leaving workers and schoolchildren little daylight before starting their day. 

In contrast, eastern states Sabah and Sarawak see sunrise between 6 a.m. and 6:30 a.m., despite sharing the same time zone as the rest of the country.

Advocates for a time zone change point to nearby countries, such as Thailand and western Indonesia, which operate on GMT+7, arguing this alignment allows for a healthier daily routine with earlier daylight hours. 

Some Malaysians say they feel “robbed” of morning light, limiting opportunities for exercise and outdoor activity before work or school.

The current time arrangement dates back to 1982, when then-Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad advanced Peninsular Malaysia’s clock by half an hour to synchronise with Sabah and Sarawak. Singapore followed suit to avoid inconvenience for businesses and travellers.

Calls to revert Peninsular Malaysia to GMT+7 have circulated online for years, driven by communities advocating for more sunlight to improve health. Supporters argue that shifting the clock could help address lifestyle-related health issues such as sleep disruption and low physical activity.

However, medical experts caution that the one-hour difference may not be a major health concern. 

The government has previously rejected proposals to shift the time zone, citing potential economic impact. 

However, shortly after the launch, Egyptian citizens began experiencing issues when attempting to book tickets. Many reported being turned away at the entrance and told that only online bookings were accepted. Attempts to book through the online system were often met with messages indicating that tickets for Egyptians were "sold out." In contrast, foreign and Arab tourists appeared able to book tickets without similar difficulties.

The fact-checking platform Saheeh Masr (Right Egypt), operating under the Arabic hashtag #صحيح_مصر, conducted a comparative test. According to their findings, foreign visitors and Arab tourists were able to reserve tickets successfully, while Egyptian users attempting to book the same time slots received "sold out" notifications.

This incident generated significant public reaction across various platforms, including X, Reddit, and local forums. Many users expressed frustration, raising concerns about transparency, fairness, and the museum's intended audience.

In response to the criticism, museum officials stated that there is no explicit prioritisation of foreign visitors. However, they acknowledged that a portion of tickets is allocated for international tourists and that online booking restrictions are implemented during peak times to manage crowd control.

The controversy has sparked debate over whether the GEM underestimated domestic interest or if the decision is financially motivated, as ticket prices for foreign visitors are higher. The situation has prompted a broader discussion about whether the museum, intended to represent and celebrate Egyptian heritage, is accessible enough to its own citizens.

There are 12 sovereign states in South America, each with a distinctive flag that carries culture, history and identity.

Some share colour palettes, for example, Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador all draw on yellow-blue-red stripes linked to the independence era of Simón Bolívar. Others, like Brazil’s green-diamond-blue-circle design, embody unique national motifs.

But these flags aren’t just aesthetic; they signal something deeper about where the region stands and where it could go.

Economically, the region is facing slower growth amid mounting global headwinds. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) projects roughly 2.0 % growth for 2025 for Latin America and the Caribbean, and the wider region is wrestling with rising debt, tariffs, and volatility.

At the same time, South America is increasingly thrust into the global spotlight for other reasons: energy, critical minerals, climate, and geopolitics. A recent news feature reported that major oil producers are looking to Brazil, Guyana and Argentina to drive more than 80 % of global non-OPEC oil-production growth over the next five years, a significant pivot for the continent.

And in the lithium-rich salt flats of Bolivia, once hailed as the “Dubai of South America” for battery-metal prospects, disappointed locals, Indigenous communities, and environmental groups are pushing back as promise turns into frustration.

Meanwhile, in regional diplomacy , the Southern Common Market (Mercosur) remains an evolving bloc with economic, political and trade ambitions.

Saladin, born in Tikrit in 1137, rose to prominence as the founder of the Ayyubid dynasty. After becoming vizier in Egypt, he replaced the Fatimid Caliphate and established a Sunni-led state centred in Cairo, which remained his capital.

The Encyclopaedia Britannica notes that by the late 12th century, Saladin controlled Egypt, Syria, Yemen, the Hejaz, and parts of North Africa, creating the most unified political entity the region had seen in generations.

From Cairo , the heart of his administration, the Ayyubid state extended north toward Damascus , Jerusalem , and Aleppo , and eastward into Yemen and the Hejaz. These regions were not just territories; they were economic and spiritual centres that gave Saladin both strength and legitimacy.

After taking control of Egypt , Saladin deliberately moved to claim Damascus because it was seen as the symbolic seat of Syrian power.

Of course, Saladin is best known internationally for recapturing Jerusalem in 1187 after the Battle of Hattin. That single event reshaped the Crusades and positioned him, in both Muslim and Western sources, as a figure of military brilliance and political restraint.

The Metropolitan Museum of Art highlights that even chroniclers on the opposing side described him as generous, diplomatic and unusually humane for a wartime leader.

Many regions central to Saladin’s empire, Syria, Yemen, Palestine, and Egypt, remain at the core of today’s global discussions about conflict, humanitarian crises and foreign intervention.

In October 2019, long-standing frustrations erupted into mass demonstrations. What began as a protest over a metro fare hike quickly grew into the country’s largest social mobilisation since the return of democracy.

At the time, President Sebastián Piñera, leading a centre-right government, initially responded with fare freezes and limited concessions, but as protests escalated, he declared a state of emergency and deployed the military to the streets. In response, political parties across the spectrum agreed to launch a constitutional process to address public discontent.

Gabriel Boric, then a young MP and former student leader, emerged as one of the key figures associated with this moment of political renewal. He supported the constitutional process and criticised the government ’s handling of the protests, arguing for deeper social reforms within a democratic framework.

In the 2021 presidential election, Boric faced José Antonio Kast, a conservative candidate who campaigned on security and a more traditional economic model. Boric won the run-off with just over 55%, becoming Chile’s youngest president and symbolising a generational shift in national politics.

This recent history continues to shape Chilean politics today. The experience of social mobilisation, constitutional debates, and shifting priorities has influenced voter expectations ahead of the upcoming election. Some Chileans still seek the transformative agenda associated with the post-2019 period, while others prioritise stability, security, and gradual reforms.

It is this question that lies behind an unexpected and controversial claim: that the Romans learned to build their ships from a civilization far to the east - one rarely studied in Europe - the Malays.

The controversial claim

The theory comes from Solehah Yaacob of the International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), who produced a PhD thesis arguing that Roman shipbuilding borrowed directly from Malay designs. For her, the evidence begins with geography and culture. The Malay peninsula and surrounding archipelagos have always been deeply maritime societies. Positioned on the ancient trade routes linking India, the Middle East, and China, Malay communities developed sophisticated vessels suited for long-distance trade and travel.

Early Chinese sources from the start of the first millennium describe Malay ships capable of carrying up to 700 people and 600 tons of cargo.

Crucially, Malay ships were constructed without metal fastenings, relying instead on wooden pegs. And builders constructed the hull first and the internal frame afterward. This “shell-first” method may seem counterintuitive, but it is also how Roman ships were built. Yaacob argues that this similarity suggests not coincidence, but influence.

As intriguing as the claim is, it quickly runs into serious problems. The Phoenicians and Vikings - seafaring cultures separated by both time and geography - also used shell-first construction. This weakens any argument that the technique must have originated in one place and diffused outward.

More significantly, there is no archaeological evidence of contact between Malays and Romans during the period when Roman shipbuilding was developing. Most experts therefore see the similarities as an example of parallel innovation: different societies arriving independently at the same practical solution for building large, sturdy vessels.

And Yaacob’s credibility has been questioned before. In an earlier academic paper, she cited as fact a satirical magazine’s joke claim that ancient Greek was secretly invented in the 1970s.

Why the debate matters

If the theory is weak, why has it generated so much discussion -enough to reach Malaysia’s parliament?

Because beneath the historical questions lie modern political and cultural tensions.

Malaysia is a multi-ethnic country in which Malay Muslims enjoy particular privileges in part due to Article 153 of the constitution, which provides special measures for Malays and indigenous groups. These measures were introduced after independence to compensate for decades of discrimination by the British colonial rulers who had given administrative and skilled jobs to those of Indian and Chinese ethnic origin. In that context, a bold theory about Malay technological influence on Rome speaks to contemporary desires for recognition and pride.

While several Malaysian politicians have dismissed the claim as obviously untrue, some defended Yaacob’s work as deserving of more respectful consideration.

Whether Romans truly learned shipbuilding from Malays is almost certainly a question with a simple answer: no. But as with many debates addressed on World Reframed , the factual correctness of the claim is only part of the story. The intensity of the reaction reveals much more about Malaysia today—its politics, its identities, and its ongoing efforts to shape and decolonise its historical narrative.

Click here to watch our previous episodes

World Reframed is produced in London by  Global South  World, part of the Impactum Group. Its editors are Duncan Hooper and Ismail Akwei.

ISSN 2978-4891

Some declared sovereignty in the late 19th century, others only just broke away in the 2000s.

Take Bulgaria, for example: it formally proclaimed independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1908. Meanwhile, Albania did so in 1912.

Fast-forward to the early 21st century, and you’ll find Kosovo, which declared independence in 2008, still a subject of diplomatic contention today.

Because these independence years reflect far more than calendar dates, they signal shifts in imperial control, the rise of nationalism, wartime upheaval and geopolitical gamesmanship.

As the United Nations notes, the 19th and early 20th centuries saw the Balkan region transition out of Ottoman rule into new political realities.

Today, the legacy of those decades echoes in the region’s push toward the European Union and beyond.

At the recent Brdo-Brijuni Process summit , leaders of Western Balkan nations emphasised their shared goal of European integration, a reminder that independence wasn’t always the final stop, but part of a broader journey.

In France , Spain, and Portugal, it appears as Londres. In Italy and Romania, it becomes Londra. Across Poland and Czechia, it’s Londyn and Londýn, while in Finland it’s Lontoo. Greek speakers use Λονδίνο, and in Welsh, the city is known as Llundain.

The name “London” comes from Londinium , the term used by the Romans during their occupation of Britain in the first century AD. Linguists believe it derived from a pre-Roman Celtic or Brittonic root, possibly Londonjon, later adopted into Latin and then Old English. Over centuries, it evolved into the modern “London.

The map reflects not only Europe’s linguistic diversity but also London’s own. According to Milestone Localisation , more than 300 languages are spoken in the city today, including Bengali, Polish, Urdu, Yoruba, and Arabic. London is among the most linguistically diverse cities in the world.

The variation in London’s name highlights how languages adapt foreign place names to local speech patterns. These differences also show how deeply the city is embedded in global culture — from Londyn in Polish newspapers to لندن in Arabic broadcasts.

As discussions about migration and cultural identity continue across Europe, the map serves as a reminder of how interconnected languages and histories are. The city’s name, spoken differently in dozens of languages, remains a shared reference point across the continent.

The colonial era may have formally ended in the mid-twentieth century, but the structures it created remain firmly in place. The protests we are witnessing today are the awakening of a generation confronting a system that has failed to deliver the opportunity their parents were promised.

Colonialism without colonisers

When people think of colonialism, they imagine European powers governing distant lands. But colonialism was never only about territorial control, it was driven by extraction - of minerals, humans, animals, heritage. It was a system that organised the world so that wealth flowed in one direction - south to north. Although many of the outward structures which symbolised that system were dismantled almost a century ago, the motors remain.

Today, the Global South continues to serve as a source supplying raw materials, cheap labor, and data to feed the consumption and profits of the North. The ruling classes of many postcolonial countries have not dismantled this system but they have learned to profit from it. Our elites, once charged with creating a fairer world, now send their children to the same private schools as their former colonisers and lock up their fortunes in the same tax havens. They no longer govern on behalf of their people but as junior partners in a global order of inequality.

Throughout the history of colonialism, occupying powers used local elites to execute their projects. This proved so much to the benefits of those elites that many have accepted their role and others still seek to adopt it.

Shrinking horizons

For the young people of the Global South, this reality has created a profound crisis of faith. Many of them are educated, connected, and ambitious, but their societies offer no place for them. They see politicians doubling their salaries while youth unemployment remains sky-high. They scroll through social media and find the children of ministers and party officials parading in designer clothes, boasting of opportunities they could never dream of.

It is easy to dismiss these reactions as envy, but they stem from something deeper: the realisation that merit and effort have been decoupled from reward. Like the educated middle classes who led anti-colonial movements a century ago, this generation is turning its disillusionment into defiance. They may not frame their struggle in the language of empire and liberation, but the substance is the same, a demand for dignity and freedom.

Controlling access

A key feature of the colonial economy was dependency: colonies exported raw materials and imported finished goods. That pattern still defines much of the developing world. Commodity dependence locks countries into cycles of boom and bust, enriching a small rentier elite while depriving the majority of stability or liberty. These elites make their fortunes not by producing value but by controlling access to oil, to land, to contracts or even to the state itself.

This structure breeds corruption, weak institutions, and hopelessness. It also deprives societies of the fiscal relationship that sustains democracy. When governments rely on resource rents or foreign aid rather than taxes, they have no incentive to be accountable to their citizens. They don't develop and their people remain poor as a result.

Breaking the chains

Escaping this trap requires more than political reform; it demands a reimagining of the global economic order. In the 1970s, leaders of the global South proposed a New International Economic Order to deliver a fairer distribution of trade, technology, and investment. But without international cooperation to end resource dependency, poverty and instability will persist no matter who holds office.

Domestically, postcolonial states must rediscover the activist role once played by the developmental states of East Asia. In the 1950s, China’s economy was comparable to Haiti’s; South Korea was poorer than parts of sub-Saharan Africa. Both transformed themselves by rejecting the laissez-faire orthodoxy still promoted by international lenders. They built strong, strategic states that used carrots and sticks and rewarding investment in productive industry. That industrial policy, with strict safeguards, lifted millions out of poverty.

Dividing the world

Every year, thousands of young people risk their lives crossing deserts and seas. The debate about whether they are economic migrants or victims of war and persecution misses the point. They are not fleeing their homelands out of greed or laziness but they are seeking a life.

The response of wealth countries in attempting to build fortresses is a wilful misinterpretation of the nature of the problem. Unless underlying issues are addressed, the world we all share will break irreparably.

Technology: Liberation or Control?

Fortunately, faster than walls can be built in any domain, technology is providing the ladders to scale them. The catalyst for the uprisings in Nepal, social media gives access to ideas and the power of coordination. It is in this power that the hope of a better future lies. Yes, these tools of technology can be used by the elites to lead, to restrict, to surveil. But ultimately they are too powerful to be confined in one direction. The disruption they bring, and the opportunity, provides the best hope that people in the Global South can connect behind a common purpose and overcome the hidden structures that still maintain colonialism's grip.

This article is based on Duncan Hooper's discussion with Mohammed Elnaiem, director of the Decolonial Centre .

Click here to watch our previous episodes

World Reframed is produced in London by  Global South  World, part of the Impactum Group. Its editors are Duncan Hooper and Ismail Akwei.

ISSN 2978-4891

Red marks countries that commemorate independence (the largest category). Orange shows nations that mark the formation of government . Yellow indicates unification moments, green reflects revolution, blue for saint days, purple for discovery, and pink for other reasons or when the reasoning doesn’t fit neatly into those categories. The striped pattern indicates where no data is available.

Unsurprisingly, most countries celebrate independence. That reflects widespread decolonisation and the rise of modern nation-states across Africa, Asia, Latin America , and elsewhere. The map shows large regions in red, indicating how many national days commemorate breaking free from colonial rule.

But some national days commemorate unification, for example, when formerly divided states merged (yellow). Others mark revolution (green), where a nation’s founding moment lies in an internal upheaval or regime change, rather than a foreign withdrawal. For example, Egypt celebrates Revolution Day on July 23, commemorating the 1952 revolution that ended the monarchy and established a republic.

Saints’ days or patron feast days also serve as national days in some countries, linking religion , tradition, and identity. Other nations mark discovery or “discovery of land” days, highlighting colonisation or exploratory heritage (purple). And in a few cases, national days are tied to other events or dates whose meaning is local or particular.

Significantly, not every country marks independence. Some states choose another moment, a constitution, a monarch’s accession, or a national hero’s birthday — because that event feels more defining to their identity.

This map’s breakdown is timely given recent political shifts and identity debates around the world. For example, Bangladesh officially recognised “July Mass Uprising Day” (August 5) in 2025, commemorating a recent revolution and regime change in 2024.

That shows how new national days can emerge from contemporary events, a country redefining how it wants to remember its own story.

Elsewhere, in regions facing secessionist pressures or debates over historical memory, national days are flashpoints. Which events get honoured (or omitted) reflects ongoing struggles over identity, history, and power.

These were public exhibitions where people from colonised regions, particularly Africa, Asia, and the Pacific, were displayed for entertainment under the guise of education or anthropology.

Often presented alongside animals or exotic artefacts, these exhibitions reflected the racial hierarchies and colonial ideologies that defined Europe ’s imperial age.

While largely forgotten today, the phenomenon reveals how deeply racism and empire shaped popular culture and scientific thought across Europe. Understanding this dark history offers critical insight into how ideas of race, civilisation, and spectacle continue to influence modern societies.

Figures like Carl Hagenbeck, a German animal trader turned exhibitor, pioneered the combination of animal and human displays to appeal to European audiences’ sense of exotic spectacle.

Examples of these shows were widespread in cities such as Paris, London, Milan, Hamburg, and Barcelona.

In Spain, for instance, a human zoo was held in Madrid’s Retiro Park in 1887, including indigenous Filipino people. Some of these displays even lasted into the mid-20th century. For example, at the 1958 Brussels World’s Fair, a “Congolese Village” exhibit drew criticism and protests from participants.

In recent years, museums and scholars have worked to uncover this history. The website humanzoos.net documents many of these exhibitions and shares testimonies and research. In Germany, a museum exhibition titled MENSCHENanSCHAUEN. Von Blicken zu Taten opened, focusing on this phenomenon.

Artistic works also revisit the topic: Brett Bailey’s controversial performance Exhibit B examined the ethics of spectacle, race, and history by bringing memory and critique into public space.

The day marked not only a pivotal moment in German history but also a turning point for Europe and the post–Cold War world.

The fall of the Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989, had set the stage for this transformation. What began as spontaneous protests and border openings soon became a continental wave of change that swept away the communist regimes of Eastern Europe.

Through months of intense diplomacy, the path to unity was forged. The East German parliament voted to accede to the Federal Republic of Germany under Article 23 of the West German Basic Law .

In contrast, the “Two Plus Four Treaty” signed on September 12, 1990, by both German states and the four Allied powers, France, the United Kingdom, the United States , and the Soviet Union, restored Germany’s full sovereignty.

At midnight on October 3, 1990, the German Democratic Republic officially ceased to exist. Five eastern states, Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia, joined the Federal Republic.

Berlin was reunified as the capital. From that moment forward, Germany was one nation again, and October 3 became Tag der Deutschen Einheit, the Day of German Unity.

In the 35 years since reunification, Germany has emerged as Europe’s strongest economy and a cornerstone of democracy. But the process of knitting together two very different societies has not been without struggle. Economic disparities between the former East and West persist.

Former industrial heartlands in the East still lag behind their western counterparts in wages, infrastructure, and employment. Towns like Eisenhüttenstadt, once proud symbols of socialist urban planning, have lost much of their population and are now experimenting with creative revitalisation programs such as offering rent-free “trial living” to attract newcomers.

Even Germany’s geography still bears the imprint of division. Although Berlin is the nation’s capital, six federal ministries remain headquartered in Bonn, a vestige of compromise codified in the Berlin–Bonn Act of 1994.

This year’s commemorations in Saarbrücken, the host city for the 2025 Unity Day celebrations, underscore Germany’s ongoing leadership role in European cooperation. French President Emmanuel Macron is expected to attend , emphasising the Franco–German partnership that remains the foundation of the European Union.

What they said

"A complete ban has been imposed on fibre-optic cable … This action has been taken to prevent immoral activities, and an alternative solution will be developed within the country to meet necessary needs," Haji Zaid, a spokesman for the governor of the Balkh province, said last week.

These businesses have weathered wars, plagues, economic collapses, and technological revolutions, yet remain relevant. Here’s a closer look at five of the oldest continually running companies in the world, verified by World Atlas .

5. The Royal Mint – United Kingdom (Founded 886)

Founded in 886 AD during the reign of Alfred the Great, the Royal Mint has been the official producer of the United Kingdom’s coinage for over 1,100 years. Originally located in the Tower of London, it now operates from a high-security facility in Llantrisant, Wales.

Today, The Royal Mint does more than just strike coins. It also mints commemorative collectables, produces bullion for investors, and even offers gold-backed savings products. Its ability to pivot from purely functional coinage production to luxury products has kept it relevant in an age where cash usage is steadily declining.

4. Tanaka-Iga – Japan (Founded 885)

Tanaka-Iga is a family-run business that has been producing Butsudan, Buddhist household altars, since 885 AD. These ornate wooden altars are a central feature in many Japanese homes, serving as places for prayer and remembrance of ancestors.

Over its nearly 1,200 years of existence, Tanaka-Iga has remained loyal to its craft while embracing modern tools to keep up with demand. It is now regarded not only as a company but as a guardian of traditional Japanese artistry and spirituality.

3. Staffelter Hof – Germany (Founded 862)

Located in the Mosel Valley, Staffelter Hof is among the world’s oldest wineries, with a history dating back to 862 AD when it was originally a monastic vineyard. Today, it is still producing acclaimed Riesling wines and has embraced organic and sustainable viticulture to adapt to changing climate conditions.

The estate has transformed into a wine tourism destination, offering tastings, stays, and tours that connect modern visitors with over a millennium of winemaking tradition. Its longevity shows how heritage brands can use their story to attract a global audience.

2. St. Peter Stiftskulinarium – Austria (Founded 803)

Founded in 803 AD, this legendary restaurant is located inside St. Peter’s Abbey in Salzburg. Often called Europe’s oldest restaurant, St. Peter Stiftskulinarium has served royalty, musicians, and travellers for over 1,200 years, including (according to lore) Charlemagne himself.

Today, it’s more than just a restaurant as it serves a dining experience that blends history, architecture, and Austrian culinary tradition. Guests can enjoy candlelit dinners in baroque halls, making it one of the most atmospheric dining venues in the world. (St. Peter Stiftskulinarium)

1. Genda Shigyō – Japan (Founded 771)

Founded in 771 AD, Kyoto’s Genda Shigyō specialises in ceremonial paper products used in religious festivals and rites. Its products are essential for events such as weddings, tea ceremonies, and Shinto rituals.

What makes Genda Shigyō unique is its commitment to traditional papermaking techniques, some of which date back over 1,200 years. The company has also adapted by offering educational workshops and preserving papermaking knowledge for future generations, making it a cultural as well as a commercial institution.

In this engaging news feature, we delve deeper, combining the infographic with trusted insights from  Civitatis  to take you on a street-by-street worldwide tour.

Yonge Street (Toronto) – 56 km

Topping the list, Yonge Street stretches approximately 56km (34 miles) through Ontario, officially recognised as the world's longest street by Civitatis. Historically honouring Sir George Yonge, it slices through Toronto’s iconic landmarks: St. Lawrence Market, the CN Tower, and the Alexander Muir Gardens—packaging both urban thrills and historical charm.

Western Avenue (Chicago) – ~37 km

Second in global rank, Western Avenue ploughs through Chicago for around 37km (22 miles). Originally constructed mid-19th century, this eclectic street has hosted everything from St. Patrick’s Day parades to the Chicagoland Toys for Tots motorcycle rally. Along its stretch, you’ll find a converted amusement park, lush cemetery grounds, and peaceful picnic spots—a true cultural slice of Windy City life.

Avenida Rivadavia (Buenos Aires) – 35 km

Sliding into third place, Avenida Rivadavia spans roughly 35km (21 miles) across Buenos Aires, from Plaza de Mayo to Moreno. Taking its name from Argentina’s first president, Bernardino Rivadavia, the avenue traces the city’s socio-political evolution, with guided tours offering glimpses through Argentina’s storied past.

Sunset Boulevard (Los Angeles) – 35 km

Tied at third, Sunset Boulevard, at around 35 km (21 miles), unites LA’s glitzy neighbourhoods, Hollywood, Beverly Hills, and Bel Air, along its storied route. Yet beneath its star-studded veneer lies a rugged cattle trail origin. Today, it dazzles with iconic venues, comedy clubs, and high-end boutiques, a symbolic stage of Californian culture.

5. Broadway ( New York City ) – 33 km

Completing the list is Broadway , the 33 km (20 miles) -long artery slicing through Manhattan’s heart. Named for the Dutch "breede wegh" ("broad way"), Broadway houses legendary icons, Times Square, Radio City Music Hall, Flatiron Building, drawing millions into its theatrical, architectural, and cultural embrace.

The first partition (1659) – Treaty of the Pyrenees

The Treaty of the Pyrenees concluded the long-running Franco‑Spanish War and marked the rise of France as a dominant European power. Spain gave up key fortresses like Montmédy, Stenay, and Thionville to France after this treaty. Luxembourg lost roughly 1,060 km², or 10% of its territory, too.

The second partition (1815) – Congress of Vienna

After Napoleon’s downfall, European powers met at the Congress of Vienna to redraw the continent’s borders and restore equilibrium. Luxembourg was elevated to a Grand Duchy, placed in a personal union with the Dutch crown, and made part of the German Confederation. Prussia gained strategically important northeastern areas, including Bitburg, Saint‑Vith, Schleiden, and Waxweiler, a loss totalling around 2,280 km², or 24% of Luxembourg’s contemporary territory.

The third partition (1839) – Treaty of London

Following the Belgian Revolution of 1830, much of Luxembourg aligned with Belgium, prompting diplomatic resolution via the 1839 Treaty of London. This resulted in the loss of the western, French-speaking portion, approximately 65% of its territory, to Belgium, becoming what is now the Belgian province of Luxembourg. The remaining rump Grand Duchy, smaller but sovereign, persisted under Dutch rule but gradually embraced its national identity.

The combined effect of the three partitions reduced Luxembourg from approximately 10,700 km² to 2,586 km², with the “lost” territories now parts of France, Germany, and Belgium. This resizing sculpted the geography and politics of modern Luxembourg, leaving behind a resilient, independent duchy.

In Europe, cities like London, Paris, and Amsterdam were rapidly rising as hubs of trade and colonial expansion. London had around 575,000 people, while Paris was close behind with roughly 500,000.

Amsterdam, though smaller, was disproportionately influential thanks to its shipping and finance industries, driven by the Dutch Golden Age. Cities such as Lisbon, Madrid, and Naples also thrived as centres of imperial administration and culture .

While Europe was on the rise, Asia dominated urban demographics. Chinese cities like Beijing (Peking), Nanjing, Hangzhou, and Canton (Guangzhou) each boasted several hundred thousand residents. Beijing is estimated to have housed over 700,000 people, making it one of the largest cities in the world at the time.

In Japan, Edo (modern-day Tokyo) was experiencing explosive growth under the Tokugawa shogunate. By 1700, it may have already surpassed 1 million residents, laying the groundwork for its later status as the largest city in the world. Cities like Kyoto and Osaka were also major cultural and economic hubs.

In India, Delhi, Patna, Ahmedabad, and Aurangabad showcased the power and wealth of the Mughal Empire, with bustling trade routes and vibrant marketplaces. Isfahan in Persia and Constantinople (Istanbul) in the Ottoman Empire likewise held hundreds of thousands of residents, serving as strategic crossroads between East and West.

In North Africa, Cairo stood out as one of the few African cities above 100,000, continuing its role as a key Islamic and trade centre. The Middle East’s Smyrna (Izmir) and Moscow further highlighted how strategic locations along trade routes fostered urban growth.

To put this into perspective, the global population in 1700 was about 600 million, less than one-tenth of today’s nearly 8 billion. Having more than 100,000 people in a single city meant enormous economic and political influence.

These cities were often capitals of empires, centres of manufacturing, and nodes in vast trade networks like the Silk Road or maritime spice routes.

By today’s standards, a city of 100,000 seems modest; many modern suburbs easily exceed that. But in 1700, reaching that threshold required strong governance, food security, and access to trade. Just a century later, the Industrial Revolution would kick-start unprecedented urban growth, transforming cities like London, New York, and Paris into true megacities.

According to Guinness World Records , the design of a white Scandinavian cross on a red background was adopted in 1625, while the square shape used on Danish ships was defined in 1748. The cross, derived from Christian symbolism, appears on other Nordic flags, but Denmark’s version has been in unbroken use longer than any other national emblem.

Netherlands

The Dutch flag’s familiar horizontal red–white–blue tricolour evolved from the Prince’s Flag that flew during the 16th‑century Dutch revolt against Spain. At sea after 1577, the Dutch navy flew an orange–white–blue tricolour; however, in the decades that followed, the orange band gradually changed to red. Encyclopaedia Britannica notes that by 1660, the transformation from orange to red was complete, making the Netherlands flag the oldest continuously used tricolour. Though no law officially enacted the switch, the red–white–blue banner became emblematic of Dutch commerce and independence.

Nepal

Unlike every other national flag, Nepal’s standard is not rectangular but a double pennant of crimson red with blue borders bearing a moon and sun. The vexillology site CountryFlags.com records that Nepal adopted its national flag in 1743 and last modified it in 1962. The design combines the flags of two rival branches of the ruling Shah dynasty, and the celestial emblems represent the permanence of the nation – the moon symbolises calm and the sun bravery.

United Kingdom

The United Kingdom’s flag, often called the Union Jack, merges the crosses of St George (England), St Andrew (Scotland) and St Patrick (Ireland). The Flags of the World database points out that the modern design was adopted on 1 January 1801, following the Act of Union that merged Great Britain and Ireland. Its continuous use dates from that year; earlier versions had omitted the Irish red saltire.

Chile

Chileans unfurled several flags during their war of independence, but the familiar red‑white‑blue flag with a lone white star in a blue canton was legally adopte d on 18 October 1817. Encyclopaedia Britannica recounts that patriotic leader José de San Martín’s forces established the Flag of Transition in early 1817 and then replaced it on 18 October with the version still used today.

Argentina

General Manuel Belgrano first flew Argentina’s sky‑blue and white triband in 1812. The Congress of Tucumán later decreed that the war flag should include a golden sun. The vexillology organisation FOTW notes that on 25 February 1818, the Congress “created the war flag by adding the sun in the middle of the white stripe,” at which point the design of the Argentine flag was officially born.

Peru

Peru experimented with several designs after declaring independence in 1820. A two‑year‑old diagonal‑stripe flag was abandoned because it resembled Spain’s colours. According to the World Atlas , the current national flag, featuring three vertical bands of red, white, and red, with the national coat of arms, was finally established on February 25, 1825. The new standard omitted a red sun and replaced it with the coat of arms, symbolising flora, fauna and mineral wealth.

It will showcase items dating back to the Stone Age and tell the story of the country’s past up to the colonial era.

Artefacts include stone tools, traditional weapons, carved stones, and decorative items like cowrie shells and beads.

A human skeleton found in a burial site is also part of the collection. Many of these objects come from different parts of the country and were previously kept by local archaeologists and universities.

The launch also included a new agreement between Côte d'Ivoire and Switzerland to fight the illegal trade in cultural property.

It outlines how to return stolen items and promises better cooperation to protect historical heritage.

Swiss official Elisabeth Baume-Schneider said the agreement builds on the strong relationship between the two countries and their shared goal to protect cultural history.

The museum adds to a growing tourist attraction in the area that includes a man-made lake, a forest, and a hippopotamus reserve, offering visitors a chance to explore both nature and history in one place.

They represent a population type that had not been previously recognised, vanishing from history about 2,000 years ago after being replaced by migrants from Central America . The research was published in the journal Science Advances.

The researchers focused on genetic material from 21 individuals, excavated from five archaeological sites on Colombia's high plains. Professor Cosimo Posth, the senior author of this study, states, "These are the first ancient human genomes from Colombia ever to be published." The samples were collected from bones and teeth, spanning nearly 6,000 years until just before Spanish colonisation. The oldest remains were found in the Checua site, located north of Bogotá at an altitude of about 3,000 meters.

Genomic analysis indicated that Checua's inhabitants were part of a relatively small group of hunter-gatherers. Kim-Louise Krettek, the study’s first author, noted, “Our results show that the Checua individuals derive from the earliest population that spread and differentiated across South America very rapidly.” Remarkably, the initial genetic makeup of these populations has no known descendants; Krettek observed, “We couldn’t find descendants of these early hunter-gatherers... That means in the area around Bogotá, there was a complete exchange of the population.”

Following this initial period, the study suggests that new cultural influences arrived via Central America, bringing technological advances such as ceramics and possibly the Chibchan languages, which are still present in Central America. Co-author Andrea Casas-Vargas remarked, “In addition to technological developments... the second migration probably also brought the Chibchan languages into what is present-day Colombia.”

The complete disappearance of this original genetic trace is quite atypical for South America, as noted by Casas-Vargas. Historically, populations in the Andes and southern regions have shown strong genetic continuity. She added, “It was that way as well in the populations which followed the hunter-gatherers in the Bogotá Altiplano until the arrival of European conquerors.

Let's explore some of the most notable among them.

1. Taumatawhakatangihangakoauauotamateaturipukakapikimaungahoronukupokaiwhenuakitanatahu (New Zealand)

Holding the Guinness World Record for the l ongest place name , this 85-letter Māori term refers to a hill near Pōrangahau in Hawke's Bay. When translated, it means: "The summit where Tamatea, the man with the big knees, the climber of mountains, the land-swallower who travelled about, played his nose flute to his loved one." This name not only reflects the Māori tradition of storytelling but also serves as a testament to their deep connection with the land.

2. Llanfairpwllgwyngyllgogerychwyrndrobwllllantysiliogogogoch (Wales)

Nestled on the island of Anglesey, this Welsh village boasts a 58-letter name , which translates to: "St. Mary's Church in the hollow of the white hazel near a rapid whirlpool and the Church of St. Tysilio near the red cave." Originally named Llanfair Pwllgwyngyll, the name was lengthened in the 1860s as a publicity stunt to attract tourists. Today, it's a popular destination, with visitors eager to photograph the iconic railway station sign.

3. Chargoggagoggmanchauggagoggchaubunagungamaugg ( United States )

Located in Webster, Massachusetts, this 45-letter name is the longest in the U.S. Derived from the Nipmuc language, it means: "Fishing place at the boundaries – Neutral meeting grounds." While often shortened to "Lake Chaubunagungamaug" or "Webster Lake," the full name remains a point of local pride.

4. Tweebuffelsmeteenskootmorsdoodgeskietfontein (South Africa)

This 44-letter Afrikaans name translates to: "The spring where two buffaloes were cleanly killed with a single shot." Situated in the North West Province, the name reflects the descriptive nature of Afrikaans toponyms.

5. Pekwachnamaykoskwaskwaypinwanik (Canada)

This 31-letter Cree name refers to a lake in Manitoba and means: "Where the wild trout are caught by fishing with hooks." The name underlines the significance of fishing in Cree culture and the descriptive nature of Indigenous place names.

6. Mamungkukumpurangkuntjunya Hill (Australia)

Located in South Australia, this 26-letter Pitjantjatjara name translates to: " Where the devil urinates." The name reflects the rich tapestry of Aboriginal languages and their deep connection to the land.

7. Äteritsiputeritsipuolilautatsijänkä (Finland)

This 35-letter name belongs to a bog region in Savukoski, Lapland. While its exact meaning remains unclear, it's recognised as Finland's longest place name and stands as evidence of the complexities of the Finnish language.

8. Azpilicuetagaraycosaroyarenberecolarrea (Spain)

This 39-letter Basque name refers to a village in Navarra and translates to: "The low field of the high pen of Azpilkueta." The name showcases the unique structure and heritage of the Basque language.

9. Venkatanarasimharajuvaripeta, India

This 28-letter Telugu name designates a railway station in Andhra Pradesh. It means: "Venkatanarasimharaju's City." The name reflects the tradition of naming places after notable individuals in Indian culture.

10. Gasselterboerveenschemond, Netherlands

This 25-letter Dutch name refers to a hamlet in Drenthe. It translates to: "The mouth of the canal of the peat colony of Gasselte. " The name highlights the Netherlands' history of peat extraction and canal systems.