Residents and volunteer fighters described an escalating security crisis, saying bandits and insurgents have been crossing in from neighbouring areas to launch raids on rural communities.

Dayabu Qulu Wamba, head of a local vigilante group, said residents were forced to organise after repeated attacks left people dead and prevented farmers from accessing their lands.

“We have a security challenge I consider a test. We couldn’t watch our people continue to die and be denied access to their lands by these bandits, and that was the motivation for us,” he said.

“We started confronting bandits with locally made guns. Many fighters have died, including my brother.” He said Wamba’s location near areas affected by banditry has made it vulnerable to incursions by armed groups. Vigilantes said they have repeatedly clashed with attackers despite limited resources.

“We heard that bandits were coming and we went to stop them,” said Ahmadu Ibrahim, a local fighter who showed wounds he said were sustained during a confrontation. “We lost three men and I was shot in my hands. It took me 12 months to heal the bullet wound, and there was no help from the government . But our commander was always by our side.”

Residents say years of violence have displaced hundreds of households and caused major economic losses.

“More than 500 households were displaced,” said local resident Sani Umar. “Many people lost millions. We then organised our own self-defence and set up a committee to support local vigilantes. Now we’re able to carry on with normal activities, even when we hear bandits may attack.”

The violence comes amid a broader wave of insecurity across Nigeria. Last week, at least 29 people were killed in an attack in Adamawa State, with the Islamic State group claiming responsibility.

Empire and armed expansion

Colonialism was driven not only by trade and exploration but by military force, and according to Britannica , European imperial expansion from the 15th to the 20th centuries relied heavily on armed conquest and suppression of resistance, as powers competed for territory, resources and strategic advantage.

The British Empire, at its height the largest in history, is especially prominent in global records of colonial warfare. Campaigns in India, Sudan, South Africa and Afghanistan formed part of a long series of conflicts tied to imperial consolidation. The National Army Museum describes Britain’s imperial wars as “continuous and worldwide”, reflecting the scale of its overseas holdings.

Clusters of recorded battles appear across the Indian subcontinent, where the East India Company and later the British Crown fought a succession of wars against regional rulers and resistance movements. The 1857 Indian Rebellion , often described as a turning point in British rule, marked one of the most significant uprisings against imperial authority.

France and the conquest of North Africa

French colonial expansion is particularly visible across North and West Africa. France’s invasion of Algeria in 1830 initiated decades of warfare. Britannica notes that the conquest was prolonged and marked by widespread violence, with resistance continuing well into the 19th century.

Elsewhere in West Africa, French forces undertook military campaigns to establish control over territories that would later become Senegal, Mali and Côte d’Ivoire. These conflicts laid the foundations for French West Africa, a federation that endured until the mid-20th century.

Spain and Portugal: Early empires of the Americas

Spain and Portugal were among the earliest European colonial powers. Following Christopher Columbus’s voyages in 1492, Spanish forces established control across much of Central and South America . The Spanish conquest of the Aztec and Inca empires involved decisive military campaigns that transformed the political landscape of the Americas.

Portugal’s empire stretched from Brazil to parts of Africa and Asia. According to historical accounts, Portuguese forces fought to secure trading ports and coastal territories, particularly in Angola, Mozambique and Goa.

The Netherlands and Southeast Asia

Dutch colonial warfare is most closely associated with Indonesia. The Aceh War, fought between 1873 and 1904, was one of the longest and bloodiest conflicts in the Netherlands’ colonial history. Dutch efforts to consolidate control over the Indonesian archipelago required repeated military campaigns against local rulers and resistance groups.

The concentration of battles across Africa , Asia and the Americas highlights how colonial borders and political structures were often forged in conflict. The United Nations has stated that the consequences of colonialism continue to shape economic inequality and political instability in many parts of the world.

More than a century later, that line has become a frontline marked by soldiers, conflict and deep-seated tension. Historians and political analysts say these conflicts didn’t begin yesterday; they began the moment territorial borders were imposed without reference to local realities. Many of today’s borders were drawn by imperial powers that cared more about rivalry and resource control than about rivers, ethnic groups, or traditional land use.

Experts say many modern border tensions occur where artificial lines cut across ethnic and cultural territories or where they overlay natural resources and strategic interests. When boundaries were imposed by colonial powers with rulers instead of local voices, they often ignored rivers, trade routes, shared histories, and even livelihoods, planting the seeds for long-term conflict .

Today, defending a border is no longer just about territorial control, it’s about survival, leverage, identity and sovereignty. Courts and treaties can offer legal frameworks for settling disputes, but in many cases, the words on a page have been overshadowed by force on the ground.

In 2026, these lines drawn centuries ago still shape who eats, who profits and who holds power, even as local communities, national governments and international actors grapple with the unresolved legacy of maps made far from the realities they were meant to define.

Aweis said Somalia “categorically and unequivocally” rejects any attempt by Israel to recognise Somaliland, which he referred to as the country’s northern region. He stressed that Somalia remains a single, indivisible sovereign state and that no external actor has the authority to alter its territorial integrity or political unity.

The minister cautioned that what he described as illegitimate actions could threaten regional peace and stability. He warned that such moves risk provoking tensions across the Horn of Africa, the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden, the Middle East , and the wider region.

He also argued that challenging Somalia’s sovereignty could undermine collective efforts to combat extremist groups, including Al Shabaab and ISIS. According to Aweis, political instability could create opportunities for such groups to exploit, weakening ongoing peace and security efforts.

The comments followed remarks by Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu on Friday, December 26, who said Israel and Somaliland had signed a joint declaration to establish full diplomatic relations, describing the move as being in the spirit of the Abraham Accords. Somaliland declared independence from Somalia in 1991 but has not been recognised by any United Nations member state, a claim Somalia has consistently rejected.

Guatemala is seeing a shift in organised crime dynamics as Mexican cartels, notably Sinaloa and Jalisco Nueva Generación and a newer Cartel Chiapas–Guatemala faction expand influence, challenging old tacit “peace” arrangements and escalating violent territorial disputes. Analysts note that Guatemala is no longer just a transit zone for narcotics but a space of active control and conflict, marked by armed clashes, murders and threats to security forces. Recent incidents in Huehuetenango and Sololá highlight this pattern of violence spreading from the Mexico–Guatemala frontier into the interior of the country.

PNC says report blaming army was written under threats

The National Civil Police (PNC) has disputed an earlier police report that accused the Guatemalan Army of attacking civilians and a patrol in Nahualá, Sololá during recent clashes. The PNC claims the original report was drafted under coercion, threats and extreme violence by armed groups, and insists that a revised, verifiable account was later submitted to prosecutors. Authorities maintain that the verified version confirms engagements with illegal armed actors and justifies the state of prevention in the area. The violence forms part of a broader security crisis in western Guatemala, where long-running territorial disputes between Nahualá and Santa Catarina Ixtahuacán have escalated into armed attacks on police and military positions. The unrest prompted the government to deploy security forces and impose temporary restrictions on movement and public gatherings.

Debate intensifies over Guatemala’s 2026 minimum wage increase

Guatemalan officials have approved an increase in the minimum wage for 2026, with differentiated hikes across sectors, 7.5% for non-agricultural work, 5.5% in agriculture and 4% in export and maquila sectors, effective 1 January. While the government says the adjustments align with technical criteria and economic needs, some analysts argue the rise exceeds what economic indicators justify and could challenge business formalisation. Business groups have called for more technical discussion on wage policy amid divided reactions across sectors.

Guatemala expels alleged Mara 18 gang member to El Salvador

Guatemalan authorities located and expelled Adilson Alfonso “Fatboy” Gómez, a 39-year-old alleged member of the Mara 18 gang wanted in El Salvador with multiple arrest orders. The operation, involving investigators from the DIPANDA unit, reflects continued efforts to remove transnational gang figures hiding in Guatemala. Gómez was delivered to Salvadoran authorities after being found in Guatemala City’s Zone 7, and his expulsion underscores ongoing regional cooperation against organised gang activity.

US issues travel warning over violence in Sololá region

The United States Embassy in Guatemala has issued a travel advisory urging US citizens to avoid the municipalities of Nahualá and Santa Catarina Ixtahuacán in Sololá due to deteriorating security following violent clashes. The alert follows the Guatemalan government ’s 15-day state of prevention declaration in response to recent armed confrontations that killed and wounded civilians and security forces. The embassy’s warning emphasises heightened risks for travellers in and around the conflict area.

The move follows violent confrontations earlier this month in which Thai forces clashed with Cambodian demonstrators near Sa Kaeo province.

Cambodian officials said at least 23 of their nationals were injured, while Thailand reported injuries to five of its officers. Phnom Penh has accused Bangkok of violating its territory, escalating tensions despite a fragile ceasefire brokered in July.

The shutdown threatens $3 billion in annual cross-border trade and leaves tens of thousands of Cambodian migrant workers stranded. It also risks destabilising ASEAN’s efforts to mediate, with both the United States and China urging restraint.

Pressure is rising from outside as well. The UN Security Council called an emergency meeting in July, with all 15 members calling for restraint. Norway, Pakistan, and Russia issued new pleas, and ASEAN’s General Border Committee will meet in October with hopes of finding a way forward. However, with Cambodia reaching out to the ICJ and Thailand pushing for direct talks instead, any solution still feels far off.

Border disputes between Thailand and Cambodia, rooted in century-old territorial ambiguities near temple sites such as Preah Vihear, have flared repeatedly, most recently between 2008 and 2011.

The first partition (1659) – Treaty of the Pyrenees

The Treaty of the Pyrenees concluded the long-running Franco‑Spanish War and marked the rise of France as a dominant European power. Spain gave up key fortresses like Montmédy, Stenay, and Thionville to France after this treaty. Luxembourg lost roughly 1,060 km², or 10% of its territory, too.

The second partition (1815) – Congress of Vienna

After Napoleon’s downfall, European powers met at the Congress of Vienna to redraw the continent’s borders and restore equilibrium. Luxembourg was elevated to a Grand Duchy, placed in a personal union with the Dutch crown, and made part of the German Confederation. Prussia gained strategically important northeastern areas, including Bitburg, Saint‑Vith, Schleiden, and Waxweiler, a loss totalling around 2,280 km², or 24% of Luxembourg’s contemporary territory.

The third partition (1839) – Treaty of London

Following the Belgian Revolution of 1830, much of Luxembourg aligned with Belgium, prompting diplomatic resolution via the 1839 Treaty of London. This resulted in the loss of the western, French-speaking portion, approximately 65% of its territory, to Belgium, becoming what is now the Belgian province of Luxembourg. The remaining rump Grand Duchy, smaller but sovereign, persisted under Dutch rule but gradually embraced its national identity.

The combined effect of the three partitions reduced Luxembourg from approximately 10,700 km² to 2,586 km², with the “lost” territories now parts of France, Germany, and Belgium. This resizing sculpted the geography and politics of modern Luxembourg, leaving behind a resilient, independent duchy.

The Commodore further emphasised the need for the vessel to leave China's flashpoint due to "structural damage to the vessel resulting from the deliberate ramming by the China Coast Guard on August 31, 2024."

According to pictures posted by local media, coast guards onboard the vessel were carried out on stretchers due to dehydration.

In response to claims of the Philippines relinquishing the Sabina Shoal to China after relentlessly guarding it for five months, Tarriela added that the country is on a journey of repositioning its vessels, debunking any rumours of facing defeat from China.

"It's not a defeat. As I said, related to my response a while ago, it's not also the Coast Guard abandoning our post in Escoda Shoal, we are just repositioning our own vessels. The only reason why we directed (BRP Teresa) Magbanua is to address the concerns that I mentioned. But it doesn't mean that the Coast Guard vessels will no longer be deployed there," Tarriela said at a news conference.

The South China Sea has been a hotspot for territorial conflicts among several nations, including China, the Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Brunei.

Last month, there were several clashes between Chinese and Filipino ships which China affirmed it was not going to put an end to.

"China will continue to take resolute and forceful measures following the law to safeguard its territorial sovereignty and maritime rights and interests and uphold the seriousness of the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea," China's Foreign Ministry spokeswoman, Mao Ning, stated.

The Philippine vessels were reportedly conducting a routine resupply mission when they encountered what they described as "unlawful and aggressive manoeuvres" by the Chinese ships.

In response, China's Foreign Ministry spokeswoman, Mao Ning, stated that the actions of the Philippine vessels had "seriously violated China's sovereignty".

She emphasised that Beijing would continue to take "resolute and forceful measures" to safeguard its territorial sovereignty and maritime rights.

"The Philippines' move seriously violated China's sovereignty, seriously violated the provisions of the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea, and seriously jeopardised peace and stability in the South China Sea. China firmly opposes this and will continue to take resolute and forceful measures in accordance with the law to safeguard its territorial sovereignty and maritime rights and interests and uphold the seriousness of the Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea," she said.

The Filipino government confirmed the collision and described the Chinese manoeuvres as aggressive.

"These dangerous manoeuvres resulted in collisions causing structural damage to both Philippine Coast Guard vessels," said Jonathan Malaya, Assistant Director General at the National Security Council of the Philippines.

The South China Sea has long been a flashpoint for territorial disputes involving multiple countries, including China, the Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Brunei.

China's expansive claims, marked by the "nine-dash line," overlap with the exclusive economic zones of several Southeast Asian nations. These overlapping claims have led to numerous confrontations and a complex web of diplomatic and military engagements.

For the first time, it establishes a direct train link between the restive Kashmir valley and the expansive Indian plains.

"The bridge is going to be helpful in the larger movement of troops and of ammunition because previously it was buses and trucks that would bring people and take people. We would have army convoys moving in because there was disruption on the roads," Noor Ahmad Aaba, political analyst is quoted by the AFP.

"It would give connectivity of Kashmir to the rest of the world. Therefore, I think it would be constantly helping the feeding of security forces whether they are in Ladakh, operating from Ladakh, or from the border area of Kashmir so that way, it is going to be helpful," he added.

In March, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi made his first visit to Kashmir since the controversial decision in 2019 to revoke the region's special semi-autonomous status, a move that was met with resistance in Kashmir.

According to the AFP report, the Chenab Rail Bridge, however, has ignited apprehensions among some locals in a region that is home to a permanent garrison of over half a million soldiers.

This means Ethiopian troops will not be part of the African Union (AU) )-led forces operating in the country at the end of the

African Transition Mission in Somalia (ATMIS) mission in December.

The country is currently negotiating with other international partners to establish a multinational force whose operations will begin in January 2025.

Azernews reports that the multinational force is expected to comprise four countries including Djibouti, Kenya, Uganda, and Burundi.

Ethiopian troops have contributed to ATMIS and additional troops stationed in Somalia outside the ATMIS framework.

The Environmental suit will be filed before the Permanent Court of Arbitration in the Hague, Netherlands, and is expected to be completed in a few weeks.

The suit is evidence-based with facts gathered over the years by the Philippines, Assistant Secretary Jose Dominic Clavano IV of the Department of Justice confirmed.

"We need to strengthen all the pieces of evidence that need to be attached," Clavano said during a public briefing Thursday. "But we are confident that in a few weeks, we will complete our complaint and the attached evidence," she was quoted by the Manilla Times as saying.

33 Chinese maritime vessels were monitored to be "swarming" in the same area from August 9 to September 11, 2023.

The adoption of Resolution 78/85, which took place under item 58 of the General Assembly's agenda at the 78 th session, focusing on the implementation of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, occurred without a vote, Sahara Press Service reports.

“The resolution reiterates once again the inalienable right of the Sahrawi people to self-determination and independence in accordance with the principles enshrined in the United Nations Charter and General Assembly Resolution 1514 (XV) containing the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples," the representative of the Polisario Front to the United Nations and coordinator with MINURSO, Sidi Mohamed Omar said.

He added, “The resolution passed by the General Assembly effectively endorses and confirms the text and spirit of the resolution adopted by the Fourth Committee on October 11, 2023.”

The General Assembly in response to the resolution, directed the Committee of 24 to furnish a comprehensive report on the Western Sahara situation during its 79th session. Additionally, the General Assembly urged the UN Secretary-General to present a report on the progress of implementing this resolution in the upcoming session.

Omar requested the Committee of 24 to continue to consider the situation in Western Sahara and that their action "unequivocally confirms the firm position of the United Nations on the international status of the question of Western Sahara as a decolonization issue registered since 1963 on the agenda of the United Nations General Assembly and its relevant bodies, in accordance with Chapter XI of the Charter of the United Nations."

An official of Western Sahara said, "the General Assembly's reaffirmation of the legal status of the Western Sahara issue as a decolonization issue and the responsibility of the international organization towards the Sahrawi people constitutes another strong blow to the Moroccan occupation state and its attempts to distort the international status of the Sahrawi issue and undermine the legitimate struggle of the Sahrawi people for freedom and independence.”

Western Sahara, located on the northwest coast of Africa, is a contentious territory. Approximately 20% of the land is governed by the self-proclaimed Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic, while the remaining 80% is under the occupation and administration of neighbouring Morocco.

What they said?

The ICJ in a statement on December 1 said, "Pending a final decision in the case, the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela shall refrain from taking any action which would modify the situation that currently prevails in the territory in dispute, whereby the Co-operative of Republic of Guyana administers and exercises control over that area…Both Parties shall refrain from any action which might aggravate or extend the dispute before the Court or make it more difficult to resolve." President Nicolás Maduro in a statement after the referendum also said, “We have carried out a political exercise with a capital "P", for Patria; a generous exercise of love for Venezuela. Today, Venezuelans unite, above differences, around political alternatives for our country. One voice: Essequibo is ours.”

According to the information gathered, Israel has communicated its intentions to various Arab nations, including non-Arab nation Turkey. The proposed buffer zone, if implemented, would stretch from north to south in the Palestinian region.

An anonymous source among the three individuals familiar with the matter stated, "Israel aims to institute this buffer zone as a protective barrier, preventing entities like Hamas or other extremist groups from infiltrating or launching attacks against Israel."

Ophir Falk, a foreign policy adviser to Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, indicated to Reuters that "the establishment of a buffer zone could form part of the broader strategy to demilitarize the coastal strip."

The countries reportedly informed about this plan include Egypt, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Jordan, and Turkey. The proposal aims to foster regional stability and prevent potential security threats emanating from the Gaza Strip.

The inauguration of a new PCG station on Pag-asa Island, held on December 1, aimed to enhance the country's presence in the area amid rising tensions, particularly regarding Chinese aggression.

During the event, authorities observed 19 Chinese maritime militia vessels near the island, along with a China Coast Guard ship and a People's Liberation Army Navy ship.

The PCG's mission extended to other Philippine-occupied features in the Kalayaan Island Group, including Likas Island, Patag Island, and Lawak Island.

These efforts involved not only the delivery of supplies but also the return of personnel stationed in the West Philippine Sea to the mainland.

Despite the challenges posed by distance and adverse weather conditions, PCG personnel demonstrated resilience and commitment to their service.

The mission underscores the Philippines' determination to safeguard its territories in the West Philippine Sea.

"We will put all of these together so that we’ll be able to strategize for the near future on what the Philippines’ role will be or what is the proper Philippines’ role in the West Philippine Sea.”

The meeting with Xi follows a prior conversation between Marcos Jr. and US Vice President Kamala Harris before the APEC conference, where they delved into the Philippine assessment of the West Philippine Sea situation.

“We just generally chatted about --- she was very interested to know what our assessment was on the situation in the West Philippines Sea, and I just went through the narrative of what was --- what had happened in the past few months,” he said.

Marcos Jr. shared insights on recent developments and explored potential ways forward to maintain peace in the region. Emphasizing the collective mission of the Philippines, including the Philippine Coast Guard, military, and fishermen, he underscored the fundamental goal of preserving peace.

Concurrently, Chinese President Xi Jinping engaged with top US executives, including Apple's Tim Cook and Tesla CEO Elon Musk, ahead of a dinner event during the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) forum.

During his meeting with Musk, Xi expressed support for Tesla's development in China. This high-security gathering allowed corporate leaders to directly hear from China's leader amid challenges such as China's economic slowdown, US efforts to "de-risk" certain supply chains away from China, and uncertainties arising from China's expanding security regulations.

The initial claim asserts that expressing opposition to China's assertive actions in the West Philippine Sea would potentially lead to a military conflict.

"Also, by calling out China’s bad behavior at sea, we highlight which party is really responsible for raising tensions and increasing the likelihood of a kinetic conflict,” Tarriela said.

He mentioned that the second argument employed by those supporting China's interests is the assertion that the Philippines' transparency regarding Chinese aggression in the West Philippine Sea is primarily influenced by the United States.

Tarriela emphasized that the Philippines' commitment to transparency is rooted in its own national interests, specifically, safeguarding the nation's maritime rights.

"The Philippine Coast Guard and other government agencies are utilizing their own resources to document and monitor Beijing's aggression in the West Philippine Sea. For instance, the PCG has chosen to embed Filipino news journalists to ensure accurate and unbiased reporting of the events they witness," he said.

He further discussed that the Philippine Coast Guard (PCG) does not exert control over the content of journalists' reports. Our commitment to transparency remains independent of any external influences, and our primary goal is to provide the public with accurate information.

Furthermore, he pointed out that individuals favoring China's interests tend to label critics of China as "anti-Filipino and pro-US."

"Their arguments are rooted in international law, such as the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea, and the Philippine Constitution. These individuals take principled positions based on defending our national interests.”