Regions that experienced Muslim rule throughout history

Key points

• Muslim-ruled states spread across three continents
• Some regions remained under Muslim rulers for centuries
• The map simplifies a complex political history

Muslim-ruled states governed territories stretching from the Iberian Peninsula and West Africa to South and Central Asia at different points over the past 1,400 years, although their borders and periods of control varied considerably.

The expansion began in the seventh century and involved many different caliphates, sultanates, emirates and empires. Parts of the Middle East and North Africa experienced Muslim rule for more than 1,000 years, but this was not continuous rule by one empire or dynasty.

Using today's national borders can also make the history look simpler than it was. A modern country shaded on the map may contain regions that experienced Muslim rule for very different lengths of time.

India shows why modern borders can mislead

Muslim political rule reached the Indian subcontinent in the early eighth century when Arab forces established control in Sindh, most of which is now in Pakistan rather than India.

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Muslim dynasties later controlled large parts of present-day India, particularly under the Delhi Sultanate from 1206 and the Mughal Empire from 1526. But their territory expanded and contracted, and other kingdoms continued to control different parts of the subcontinent.

It would therefore be misleading to say that all of modern India was under Muslim rule for more than 1,000 years. Different regions experienced Muslim-led governments at different times and for different periods.

Muslim rule in Iberia also changed dramatically

The Iberian Peninsula provides another example. Muslim forces entered in 711 and established control over most of the peninsula, but that territory gradually contracted as Christian kingdoms expanded.

By the 13th century, Muslim political control was largely confined to the Emirate of Granada, which survived until 1492.

So although Muslim-ruled states existed somewhere on the Iberian Peninsula for nearly eight centuries, not every part of modern Spain and Portugal was under Muslim rule for that entire period.

The same caution applies across the map. It is best understood as showing regions that experienced Muslim rule at some point in history, with the duration varying within today's national borders.